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All issues Volume 32 (2025) Parasite, 32 (2025) 12 Full HTML
Open Access
Issue
Parasite
Volume 32, 2025
Article Number 12
Number of page(s) 26
DOI https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2025005
Published online 21 February 2025

© Z. Shen et al., published by EDP Sciences, 2025

Licence Creative CommonsThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abbreviations

NTD, Neglected Tropical Disease; ASR, Age-Standardized Rates; EAPC, Estimated Annual Percent Changes; ASMR, Age-standardized Mortality Rate; ASDR, Age-Standardized DALY Rate; ASPR, Age-Standardized Prevalence Rate; SDI, Socio-Demographic Index; UI, Uncertainty Interval, ARIMA, Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average; ES, Exponential Smoothing.

Introduction

Schistosomiasis, a parasitic infection caused by the larvae of blood flukes and transmitted through the human vein system, has long posed a significant threat to global public health [10, 11, 32]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified it as one of the Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs), with its high incidence rate and widespread geographic distribution, making its global disease burden particularly significant [8]. Schistosomiasis mainly spreads in countries and regions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, affecting residents in impoverished areas and being difficult to eradicate due to its complex transmission chain and wide host range [1, 3, 4].

Schistosomiasis poses a significant threat to human health, with early typical clinical symptoms including rash, cough, fever, abdominal pain, and diarrhea [7, 13], while the late stage may lead to liver and spleen enlargement, liver cirrhosis, ascites, and even hepatic coma, gastrointestinal bleeding, and death [12, 13, 18, 19]. Moreover, schistosomiasis has a particularly high impact on the health of women and children, with women’s health potentially affected by the disease, leading to infertility or miscarriage [5], while children’s health may be affected, leading to stunted growth and, in severe cases, short stature [7]. It is estimated that schistosomiasis causes a global disease burden of approximately 3.31 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), which highlights the significant consumption of global public health resources by the disease [15]. Schistosomiasis not only affects patients’ physical health, but also has a profound impact on their social and economic status, especially in poor areas with limited medical resources, where the disease often becomes one of the main causes of poverty and re-poverty [26].

In summary, the global disease burden of schistosomiasis is very high, causing significant impact on individuals’ health, social and economic status, and public health, and is an urgent public health issue that needs to be addressed [25]. Therefore, it is essential to conduct in-depth research on the global disease burden of schistosomiasis. This study aimed to provide important references for analyzing the epidemiological characteristics and patterns of schistosomiasis worldwide, evaluating its disease burden, and formulating effective control strategies. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to analyze and forecast trends in schistosomiasis deaths, DALYs, and prevalence from 2020 to 2045, using available data and advanced predictive models.

Materials and methods

Study population and data sources

This study utilized data from the GBD website (https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-results/) [6] from 1990 to 2021 on global schistosomiasis-related death number, DALYs, and prevalence number and corresponding age-standardized rates (ASRs), including Age-Standardized Mortality Rate (ASMR), Age-Standardized DALY Rate (ASDR), and Age-Standardized Prevalence Rate (ASPR). The GBD study is a systematic investigation that assessed the impact of 370 diseases and risk factors on health across sex, age, and Socio-Demographic Index (SDI), and 204 countries and 54 GBD regions. The study population was divided into 20 groups; it also included all SDI regions (high SDI, middle-high SDI, middle-high SDI, middle-low SDI, and low SDI), 54 GBD regions (only 41 GBD regions reported data values), and 204 countries and regions (only 70 countries and regions reported data values for deaths and DALYs).

Autoregressive integrated moving average and exponential smoothing models

In the disease burden forecasting section, this study employed the Differential Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model [35], which is a widely used statistical forecasting method for time series prediction problems. The ARIMA model can capture different types of time series features by adjusting the parameters (p, d, q). By analyzing the historical data of schistosomiasis, the study predicted the schistosomiasis-related death number, DALYs, prevalence number, ASMR, ASDR and ASPR from 2022 to 2046. Based on schistosomiasis data from 1990–2020, this study employs the Exponential Smoothing (ES) model to forecast trends in schistosomiasis disease burden from 2020 to 2045 [36]. In applying the ES model, the smoothing coefficient (smoothing parameter) needs to be adjusted to balance the weight of historical data and new data, and the optimal smoothing coefficient is selected through cross-validation or grid search methods. ES is a commonly used time series forecasting method that predicts the future 25-year trend of schistosomiasis by weighted averaging of historical data. Through the above two forecasting methods, we can determine whether the future disease burden trend of schistosomiasis is consistent.

Statistical analysis

We explored the temporal trend of the global schistosomiasis burden from 1990 to 2021 by subtypes, including age, gender, SDI, GBD region, and country, and Estimated Annual Percent Changes (EAPC) was estimated using a linear regression model. Based on the EAPC values, hierarchical clustering analysis was conducted to evaluate the trends of disease burden changes in each GBD region and identify regions with similar changes in disease burden. The 41 GBD regions were divided into four categories: significant increase, moderate increase, stable or minor decrease, and significant decrease.

Statistical significance was considered when the p-value was less than 0.05. The data were constructed, organized, analyzed, and plotted using R (version 4.3.0) software.

Results

Disease burden caused by schistosomiasis in 2021 (based on GBD 2021 data)

The disease burden data for schistosomiasis in 2021, presented here, are derived from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 study and are not predictions made by our ARIMA model. According to the GBD 2021, in 2021, the number of deaths related to schistosomiasis was 12,858 people (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 11,335–14,388), with an ASMR of 0.15 per 100,000 people (95% UI: 0.14–0.17) (Table 1). The number of deaths increased with age for both men and women, peaking in the 60–64 age group, and the ASMR peaked in the 75–79 age group before gradually decreasing. Among the age groups before 70–74, the number of female deaths was generally lower than that of males (Supplementary Fig. 1A). Similarly, DALYs related to schistosomiasis were 1,746,333 (95% UI: 1,038,122–2,984,204), with an ASDR of 21.9 per 100,000 people (95% UI: 12.94–37.28) (Table 2). The DALYs and ASDR were highest among the 15–24 age group, and then decreased gradually. In the 15–34 age group, the female DALYs and ASDR were higher than those of males (Supplementary Fig. 1B). The prevalence number was 151,376,744 (95% UI: 109,062,891–198,666,396), with an ASPR of 1,914.30 per 100,000 people (95% UI: 1,378.92–2,510.85) (Table 3). The ASPR decreased gradually after the 15–19 age group.

Table 1

Number of deaths and age-standardized deaths rate (ASMR) attributable to schistosomiasis in 1990 and 2021, and trends from 1990 to 2021 globally.

Table 2

Number of DALYs cases and age-standardized DALYs rate (ASDR) attributable to schistosomiasis in 1990 and 2021, and trends from 1990 to 2021 globally.

Table 3

Number of prevalence cases and the age-standardized prevalence rate (ASPR) attributable to schistosomiasis in 1990 and 2021, and trends from 1990 to 2021 globally.

Between 1990 and 2021, trends in the number of deaths, ASMR, DALYs, ASDR, prevalence number, and ASPR were also reported by the GBD 2021. Specifically, the number of deaths and ASMR showed a downward trend year by year, while the DALYs, ASDR, prevalence number (despite an overall increase), and ASPR exhibited an upward trend, followed by a decline (Fig. 1). Detailed annual changes and EAPCs with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for these indicators are provided in Tables 1–3, respectively.

thumbnail Figure 1

Global trends in the disease burden of schistosomiasis from 1990 to 2021. (A) Trends in number of deaths and ASMR. (B) Trends in DALYs and ASDR. (C) Trends in prevalence numbers and ASPR. Abbreviations: ASMR, Age-standardized Mortality Rate; ASDR, Age-Standardized DALY Rate; ASPR, Age-Standardized Prevalence Rate. DALYs, disability-adjusted life years.

Subgroup analysis in 2021 (based on GBD 2021 data)

Further subgroup analyses of the 2021 data, as reported by the GBD 2021, revealed age-, sex-, and SDI-specific patterns. Across all age groups, the number of deaths and ASMR peaked in certain age groups before declining, while the prevalence number and ASPR peaked earlier and then gradually decreased. The DALYs and ASDR showed similar trends, peaking in younger age groups and then decreasing (Fig. 2). In terms of sex, men had higher disease burdens than women across all indicators. At the SDI level, low SDI regions had the highest disease burdens, with a gradually increasing trend from high SDI regions. Regionally, Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa – WB had the highest deaths and DALYs, respectively, while the highest prevalence was reported in multiple regions including Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa – WB (Supplementary Figs. 2–5 and Tables 1–3).

thumbnail Figure 2

Trend for schistosomiasis in age subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR. (B) Number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence numbers.

National-level and trend analyses from 1990 to 2021 (based on GBD 2021 data)

At the national level, countries with reported schistosomiasis cases in 2021 were primarily located in Africa and South America, and in China. The highest ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR were reported in various countries, with Nigeria standing out for having the highest number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence number (Supplementary Fig. 6 and Tables 1–3).

Trend analyses from 1990 to 2021, based on GBD 2021 data, revealed notable declines in deaths, ASMR, and DALYs across all age groups. For ASDR and ASPR, specific age groups experienced initial increases followed by declines, while other age groups showed more stable trends. Sex-specific and SDI-specific analyses further highlighted these trends, with significant declines observed in low SDI areas for multiple indicators (Figs. 3 and 4). Additionally, clustering analysis categorized 41 GBD regions into four trends, and world maps illustrated changes and trends in key indicators across 70 countries and regions (Figs. 5 and 6).

thumbnail Figure 3

Trend for schistosomiasis in sex subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR. (B) Number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence numbers.

thumbnail Figure 4

Trend for schistosomiasis in SDI subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR. (B) Number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence numbers.

thumbnail Figure 5

Results of cluster analysis based on the EAPC values of the schistosomiasis-related age-standardized rates for deaths, DALYs, and prevalence from 1990 to 2021.

thumbnail Figure 6

Trend for schistosomiasis in national and territories subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASPR. (B) ASMR. (C) ASDR. (D) Prevalence number. (E) Number of deaths. (F) DALYs number.

Disease burden forecast of schistosomiasis

Using time series analysis, we employed the ARIMA model and ES model to forecast the schistosomiasis burden from 2022 to 2046. Leveraging data spanning from 1990 to 2021, the ARIMA model was utilized to quantitatively predict future trends in schistosomiasis. After applying the auto.arima function for optimization, the resultant ARIMA models for various indicators were as follows: male ASMR (0, 1, 3), male age-standardized death rate (ASDR) (0, 2, 2), male ASPR (0, 2, 1), female ASMR (1, 1, 2), female ASDR (0, 2, 1), female ASPR (0, 2, 1), male death count (0, 1, 1), male DALYs (0, 2, 0), male prevalence count (0, 2, 1), female death count (1, 1, 1), female DALYs (2, 0, 1), and female prevalence count (0, 2, 1). The ARIMA model predictions indicate a decline in female deaths and ASMR fluctuations over the next 25 years, whereas male deaths and ASMR are projected to remain stable (Figs. 7A). Additionally, other indicators for both genders are anticipated to continue decreasing (Figs. 7B and 7C). To evaluate the robustness of these predictions, we further utilized an ES model to forecast the future disease burden of schistosomiasis, finding generally consistent results with those of the ARIMA model (Figs. 7D–7F).

thumbnail Figure 7

Predicted trends for global schistosomiasis in number of deaths and age-standardized mortality rate using the ARIMA model (A) and exponential smoothing model (D), predicted trends for global schistosomiasis in DALYs and age-standardized DALYs rates using the ARIMA model (B) and exponential smoothing model (E), predicted trends for global schistosomiasis in prevalence number and age-standardized prevalence rate using the ARIMA model (C) and exponential smoothing model (F).

Discussion

This study is the first to comprehensively analyze the disease burden of schistosomiasis globally. Previous studies on this topic were mostly limited to individual countries or regions [1, 2, 9, 23, 34], and some were outdated [14, 17], so the trend and future burden of schistosomiasis disease globally were unclear. This study used the newly released GBD 2021 schistosomiasis data to estimate the global disease burden related to schistosomiasis and explored the trends and patterns of disease change from 1990 to 2021, and predicted the disease burden from 2022 to 2046. These findings may provide scientific evidence and reference for the control of schistosomiasis globally.

The results of this study show that significant progress has been made in schistosomiasis control globally over the past 30 years. Compared with 1990, five indicators, including death number, DALYs, ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR, showed a downward trend in 2021, while only the number of infected people showed an upward trend. In age subgroups, except for the ASPR trend upwards in the 15–19 age group, ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR showed a downward trend in all age groups. In the gender subgroups, except for the upward trend in prevalence number and ASPR, the other four indicators showed a downward trend. Overall, significant progress has been made in global schistosomiasis control over the past 30 years, thanks to the following factors: first, the continuous attention to and advocacy for schistosomiasis by the WHO, including a series of recommendations [8, 25]; second, the active prevention and control measures taken by disease burden regions and organizations [29, 30, 33]; and third, the widespread use of effective treatment drugs such as praziquantel [32]. These factors have greatly reduced the number of deaths, DALYs, and corresponding ASR of schistosomiasis globally. However, it is also important to note that prevalence number and the ASPR for the majority of disease burden countries have not been controlled and are on the rise.

On a global scale, both the prevalence number and the ASPR for all five SDI regions have shown an upward trend, with the lowest SDI region having the heaviest burden of schistosomiasis, but the most obvious downward trend. Although the burden of schistosomiasis in the highest SDI region is relatively light, the six indicators of death number, DALYs, prevalence number, and corresponding ASR in 2021 compared to the indicators in 1990 all show an increasing burden of disease, which may be related to the increase in global personnel flow and international trade, leading to the import of schistosomiasis into the high SDI regions [20]. Schistosomiasis mainly spreads in impoverished and barren areas with poor economic development, and it is also the region with the heaviest burden of schistosomiasis globally. Under the impetus of the WHO, various aid measures, such as the planning of schistosomiasis control programs, drug donations, and the development of diagnostic tools, have been implemented in low SDI areas, leading to a significant reduction in the burden of schistosomiasis disease [4, 8].

The research findings also show that from 1990 to 2021, the global burden of schistosomiasis disease was characterized by higher DALY years, prevalence number, and corresponding ASR in the adult group, the highest number of deaths and ASMR in the elderly group, and a relatively heavy burden in the 5–15 year school-age children groups, which may be related to factors such as poor ecological environment, lack of public health education, backward sanitation facilities, and insufficient understanding of the life cycle and causes of the disease. This result is basically consistent with the conclusions of previous studies [2, 9]. Therefore, to achieve the WHO’s global elimination of schistosomiasis public health threat target, more investment and support are needed for such low SDI areas.

The study results also show that in the 70 schistosomiasis disease burden countries and regions, more than 30 countries have seen an upward trend in disease death numbers, DALYs, and prevalence number, with most of them being African countries, such as Zimbabwe and Nigeria, as well as Oman [21]. For example, previous reports have shown that Zimbabwe implemented a national worm control project plan, providing mass praziquantel prophylactic treatment for school-age children, achieving a schistosomiasis infection rate of less than 1.00% among school-age children [22]. The results of this study also show a downward trend in schistosomiasis morbidity and ASPR in Zimbabwe in 2021, but the country’s DALYs, number of deaths, and ASMR are higher than in 1990, estimated to be due to the global population explosion over the past 30 years, coupled with the fact that the project plan mainly targeted children, so the previous reporting results cannot truly reflect the actual situation of the entire population in the country. It is therefore speculated that the situation in other schistosomiasis disease burden-heavy African countries is similar.

In this study, we employed time series analysis using both the ARIMA model and the ES model to forecast the schistosomiasis burden from 2022 to 2046. Leveraging a comprehensive dataset spanning from 1990 to 2021, our ARIMA models were tailored to predict future trends in schistosomiasis through the application of the auto.arima function for optimization. The resultant ARIMA model configurations for various indicators, including male and female ASMR, ASDR, ASPR, death counts, DALYs counts, and prevalence counts, provide a nuanced understanding of the disease’s future trajectory. Notably, our ARIMA model predictions indicate a decline in female deaths and fluctuations in female ASMR over the next 25 years, whereas male deaths and ASMR are projected to remain relatively stable. This gender-specific disparity in mortality trends may reflect differences in access to healthcare, disease management practices, or biological susceptibility to schistosomiasis [16]. Furthermore, other indicators for both genders, such as ASDR, ASPR, DALYs, and prevalence counts, are anticipated to continue decreasing. This overall decline suggests potential progress in schistosomiasis control efforts, which could be attributed to advancements in treatment, prevention strategies, and public health interventions [24].

To validate the robustness of our ARIMA model predictions, we employed an ES model, which yielded generally consistent results. This convergence of findings across different forecasting methodologies strengthens our confidence in the projected trends and highlights the potential for continued improvements in schistosomiasis control. However, it is important to acknowledge that these predictions are based on historical data and may be influenced by future changes in disease dynamics, healthcare policies, and environmental conditions. Therefore, ongoing monitoring and evaluation of schistosomiasis burden, coupled with adaptive strategies for disease control, will be crucial to ensuring the accuracy and relevance of these forecasts in guiding public health interventions.

There are several limitations in this study. First, the data in the GBD database are not real observational data, and there may be differences between the data and the actual situation when there is a lack of data from the marginal areas and specific populations. Second, the GBD database may not have covered all possible risk factors that lead to schistosomiasis. For example, the impact of infection on female reproductive organs and functions [17]. Third, there is a lack of detailed monitoring data for some key areas, especially in African countries and regions, which makes the overall burden analysis of schistosomiasis less accurate.

Conclusions

In summary, to completely eliminate or eradicate schistosomiasis globally, especially in Africa, there are still many challenges, such as the dramatic changes in the natural environment, global warming [27], and population growth, which seriously limit the supply of health resources. Other factors include insufficient drug supply and low population coverage, no effective vaccine to date [28], inadequate information monitoring systems, and insufficient representativeness of monitoring data [31]. Early diagnostic techniques and tools need to be improved. Use of drugs for prevention and treatment is in conflict with environmental protection, such as the large-scale use of pesticides causing environmental damage, the emergence of drug resistance and other adverse reactions. The agricultural development mode is unable to effectively cut off the source of infection and transmission [26], global economic development is highly uneven, and the African region as a whole has a poor economy, social environment, and insufficient investment in public health. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the current global schistosomiasis epidemic situation and the characteristics of disease epidemics are the basis for exploring comprehensive prevention and control strategies, and we hope to contribute to the WHO’s goal of eliminating schistosomiasis by 2030.

Funding

This work was supported by grants from the Key Project of Scientific Research Plan of Education Department of Hubei Province, China (No. D20224501), Kidney Disease Occurrence and Intervention Key Laboratory of Hubei Province Open Fund Project, China (No. SB202105), and the Research Project of Hubei Polytechnic University, China (No. 23xjz09A).

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interests to disclose.

Supplementary materials

thumbnail Supplementary Figure 1.

Global burden of schistosomiasis in 2021. (A) Number of deaths and ASMR. (B) Number of DALYs and ASDR. (C) Prevalence number and ASPR.

thumbnail Supplementary Figure 2.

Schistosomiasis burden in age groups in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rate of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.

thumbnail Supplementary Figure 3.

Schistosomiasis burden in sex groups in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rate of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.

thumbnail Supplementary Figure 4.

Schistosomiasis burden in the SDI group in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rate of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.

thumbnail Supplementary Figure 5.

Schistosomiasis burden in the GBD region in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rates of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.

thumbnail Supplementary Figure 6.

Schistosomiasis burden in countries and territories in 2021. (A) ASPR. (B) ASMR, (C) ASDR, (D) Prevalence number. (E) Number of deaths. (F) DALYs number.

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Cite this article as: Shen Z & Luo H. 2025. The impact of schistosomiasis on the Global Disease Burden: a systematic analysis based on the 2021 Global Burden of Disease study. Parasite 32, 12. https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2025005.

All Tables

Table 1

Number of deaths and age-standardized deaths rate (ASMR) attributable to schistosomiasis in 1990 and 2021, and trends from 1990 to 2021 globally.

In the text
Table 2

Number of DALYs cases and age-standardized DALYs rate (ASDR) attributable to schistosomiasis in 1990 and 2021, and trends from 1990 to 2021 globally.

In the text
Table 3

Number of prevalence cases and the age-standardized prevalence rate (ASPR) attributable to schistosomiasis in 1990 and 2021, and trends from 1990 to 2021 globally.

In the text

All Figures

thumbnail Figure 1

Global trends in the disease burden of schistosomiasis from 1990 to 2021. (A) Trends in number of deaths and ASMR. (B) Trends in DALYs and ASDR. (C) Trends in prevalence numbers and ASPR. Abbreviations: ASMR, Age-standardized Mortality Rate; ASDR, Age-Standardized DALY Rate; ASPR, Age-Standardized Prevalence Rate. DALYs, disability-adjusted life years.
In the text
thumbnail Figure 2

Trend for schistosomiasis in age subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR. (B) Number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence numbers.
In the text
thumbnail Figure 3

Trend for schistosomiasis in sex subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR. (B) Number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence numbers.
In the text
thumbnail Figure 4

Trend for schistosomiasis in SDI subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASMR, ASDR, and ASPR. (B) Number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence numbers.
In the text
thumbnail Figure 5

Results of cluster analysis based on the EAPC values of the schistosomiasis-related age-standardized rates for deaths, DALYs, and prevalence from 1990 to 2021.
In the text
thumbnail Figure 6

Trend for schistosomiasis in national and territories subgroups from 1990 to 2021. (A) ASPR. (B) ASMR. (C) ASDR. (D) Prevalence number. (E) Number of deaths. (F) DALYs number.
In the text
thumbnail Figure 7

Predicted trends for global schistosomiasis in number of deaths and age-standardized mortality rate using the ARIMA model (A) and exponential smoothing model (D), predicted trends for global schistosomiasis in DALYs and age-standardized DALYs rates using the ARIMA model (B) and exponential smoothing model (E), predicted trends for global schistosomiasis in prevalence number and age-standardized prevalence rate using the ARIMA model (C) and exponential smoothing model (F).
In the text
thumbnail Supplementary Figure 1.

Global burden of schistosomiasis in 2021. (A) Number of deaths and ASMR. (B) Number of DALYs and ASDR. (C) Prevalence number and ASPR.
In the text
thumbnail Supplementary Figure 2.

Schistosomiasis burden in age groups in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rate of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.
In the text
thumbnail Supplementary Figure 3.

Schistosomiasis burden in sex groups in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rate of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.
In the text
thumbnail Supplementary Figure 4.

Schistosomiasis burden in the SDI group in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rate of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.
In the text
thumbnail Supplementary Figure 5.

Schistosomiasis burden in the GBD region in 2021. (A) Age-standardized rates of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence. (B) The number of deaths, DALYs, and prevalence.
In the text
thumbnail Supplementary Figure 6.

Schistosomiasis burden in countries and territories in 2021. (A) ASPR. (B) ASMR, (C) ASDR, (D) Prevalence number. (E) Number of deaths. (F) DALYs number.
In the text

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