EDP Sciences logo
Submit your paper
Search
Menu
All issues Volume 24 (2017) Parasite, 24 (2017) 21 Full HTML
Open Access
Review
Issue
Parasite
Volume 24, 2017
Article Number 21
Number of page(s) 15
DOI https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2017024
Published online 15 June 2017

© A. Sazmand & A. Joachim, published by EDP Sciences, 2017

Licence Creative CommonsThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Introduction

Camel medicine has a long history in Iran, and the book of Abu Obayda Mamar b. Motanna Bajarvani (died circa 827) on camels, namely Ketaab al-ebel, in English, The book of dromedaries, is among the earliest works about camels compiled by a Persian. This book on animal physiology and veterinary science was written in 16 chapters. The 9th century physician Ali b. Rabban Tabari described the functions of parts of the bodies of various animal species: camels, bulls, donkeys, elephants, and lions, in the fourth communication of his Ferdaws al-ḥekma (in English, The paradise of wisdom) (pp. 421–427), and discussed animal diseases and their appropriate treatments [154]. Traditional methods for controlling animal diseases were also described. Camels suffering from surra (Trypanosoma infection, known in Iran as del zanak) were firmly bound, and small rocks, heated up in a fire, were attached to a board that was moved under the neck of the animal. This type of cauterisation was believed to confer protection; it perhaps stimulates the immune system [164].

Modern veterinary knowledge found its way into Iran during the 1850s via European veterinarians who were mainly in charge of royal stables and military services [154]. However, the first records of veterinary parasitology activities in Iran are reports by Carpentier in 1931 who diagnosed Trypanosoma evansi-like trypomastigotes in the blood of sick horses in the south of Iran [26]. Since the 1930s, Iranian veterinarians have been trained in faculties of veterinary medicine in Iran and have conducted modern veterinary parasitology research. According to the latest official report, there are about 171,500 Old World Camels (OWCs) including one-humped (dromedary) and two-humped (Bactrian) camels (only 100–300 individuals) in Iran, which are scattered throughout 21 of the 31 Iranian provinces [5]. In this article, we review the published research on the parasites of camels in Iran from 1931 to February 2017.

Methods

The authors checked all available documents on each of the search terms which included a combination of Iran or Iranian – in Persian and English – with one of the generic names of the camel parasites as mentioned in reference books “The Camel in Health and Diseases” [55], “Infectious Diseases in Camelids”, 2nd edition [171], and “Camelid Infectious Disorders” [172]. The databases and search engines employed for the present literature review were those of PubMed (www.pubmed.gov), Google (www.google.com), Scientific Information Database of Iran (www.sid.ir) and the collection of defended theses at all Iranian Universities (www.irandoc.ac.ir).

Protozoal infections

Trypanosomosis

Trypanosoma evansi is the most pathogenic and economically important protozoan parasite of camels that causes severe disease (surra) throughout camel rearing areas of the world [19]. T. evansi is now considered as an emerging zoonotic parasite [43]. Trypanosoma was first reported in Persia in 1876 and was known to be fatal for horses, according to Haig (reviewed by Lingard [72]). After massive mortality of more than 3000 horses in 1930 in the south of Iran, Trypanosoma evansi-like parasites were diagnosed in the blood of diseased animals [26]. T. evansi infection in camels in Iran was confirmed for the first time in 1935 by Delpy and Rafyi, and experimental infections of several mammals with T. evansi isolated from an infected camel were performed [30, 160]. The therapeutic and prophylactic efficacy of different dosages of Naganol® (suramin sodium) and antrycide methyl sulphate was studied in naturally infected camels since the dose of Naganol® recommended by the manufacturer was extremely expensive at that time [13, 123]. Since Iran does not lie within the tsetse belt, trypomastigotes in camels have usually been assigned to T. evansi according to their morphological and morphometric features upon microscopic examination. Prevalence rates between 0 and 19.47% for Trypanosoma infections have been reported in camels. However, there are only two sequence-confirmed studies on camel T. evansi infections from Iran (Table 1). In Iran, there is also one report of a natural T. evansi infection of a two-humped camel (Camelus bactrianus) [130]. Outbreaks of Trypanosomosis in dromedary herds associated with mortalities and abortions have been documented [31, 178]. Although no study has been conducted to examine infestation with known T. evansi vectors in the country, reports of natural infections with T. evansi in three dogs in Tehran [59], one horse in Shiraz [15], and one water buffalo in Ahvaz [135] with no history of travel, show that non-cyclic transmission occurs.

Table 1.

Prevalence rates of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels in Iran.

Eimeriosis

Coccidiosis of camels is an intestinal protozoan infection caused by apicomplexan parasites of the genus Eimeria. Disease caused by these parasites is of great economic importance because of losses due to enteritis, diarrhoea and poor weight gain [172]. Camels harbour their own species of Eimeria including E. cameli, E. rajasthani, E. bactriani, E. dromedarii, E. pellerdyi and E. leuckarti in OWC [71, 172]. Data on the frequency and diversity of Eimeria species in dromedaries and Bactrian camels are limited to seven studies which were based on coproscopy, except one that reported tissue alterations caused by Eimeria spp. [68]. Overall prevalences varying between 9.51% and 63% have been reported (Table 2). All reports concerned dromedary camels, except one that included Bactrian camels [174].

Table 2.

Prevalence rates of Eimeria in camels in Iran.

Cryptosporidiosis

Cryptosporidiosis is one of the major zoonotic infections associated with food-borne and water-borne outbreaks [25]. Cryptosporidium spp. has a faecal-oral transmission route. A broad range of hosts including humans, and domestic and wild animals can be affected by pathological changes induced by this gregarine parasite. Several polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based studies on Bactrian camels, llamas and alpacas have detected C. andersoni, C. muris, C. parvum and C. ubiquitum (reviewed by Robertson et al. [134]). However, all studies on Cryptosporidium infections in dromedary camels were based on microscopic modified Ziehl-Neelsen stained faecal smear examinations. Overall prevalences based on faecal samples from dromedaries varied between 0.5% and 37.9% (Table 3). Cryptosporidium was detected in one out of 396 [102] and 12 out of 100 [146] examined abomasum mucosa samples. Available data on clinical disease in camels are limited. A total number of 170 Iranian camel faecal samples were examined, 10% of them showed Cryptosporidium-like organisms [175]. Camel calves less than one year of age showed the highest prevalence (20%). Infected calves showed wasting, diarrhoea and debility, while older oocyst shedders showed no symptoms. Rare data on zoonotic transmission are available. In Yazd Province, 24 of 100 people in long-term contact with camels were diagnosed with Cryptosporidium spp. [146]. Infection was significantly higher in winter (32%) than in summer (16%). Several factors could contribute to seasonality. Oocyst shedding in herbivores is mostly observed during the cold months (autumn and winter). It can therefore be assumed that, on the one hand, low temperature increases oocyst viability, and on the other, during the cold months, animals usually spend more time inside the barn and the oocysts are protected from direct sunlight [25].

Table 3.

Prevalence rates of Cryptosporidium spp. in camels in Iran.

Toxoplasmosis

The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is an important zoonotic pathogen worldwide. Viable parasites have been isolated from edible tissues of camels [46]. Several epizootiological studies have been conducted on the detection of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies in sera of camels from Iran. The first report was most likely from camels in Fars Province with an infection rate of 17% of 100 tested animals [103]. Antibodies against Toxoplasma were present in 4.16% of 120 tested camels from the north-eastern region of Iran using an immunofluorescence antibody test [137]. In another study, 14.57% seropositivity was reported from 254 tested camels from the centre of Iran, using the modified agglutination test based on direct agglutination of fixed parasites with sera pretreated with 2-mercaptoethanol [51]. Discrepancies in the results could be due to differences in the techniques, the initial serum dilution, age of the examined camels and different environmental conditions. There are two PCR-based publications on blood samples randomly collected from dromedaries. In the first study performed on 50 animals, Toxoplasma could not be detected [148]; however, in the other research work, the parasite was found in eight out of 122 samples (6.6%) [62]. In a comprehensive study on raw milk from various species carried out in 2013 by Safarpoor Dehkordi et al., 3.12% of 160 examined dromedary milk samples were positive in cell cultivation and cat bioassay. Capture ELISA and PCR results showed infection rates of 1.87% and 2.5%, respectively [138].

Neosporosis

Neosporosis is primarily a disease of cattle and dogs. Abortions caused by Neospora caninum have been reported in alpaca and llama [150]. However, despite the numerous reports on the presence of anti-N. caninum antibodies in camel sera, clinical disease has not been documented in OWCs. Antibodies against N. caninum have been reported from camels in Mashhad (5.83%) [137] and Isfahan (3.22%) [58] using an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT), and also in camels in Yazd (3.94%) using a Neospora agglutination test [51].

Sarcocystiosis

There have been several cases of intestinal Sarcocystis infection in humans in Iran, but there is little information about the parasites’ molecular characteristics [4]. Until very recently, there was confusion concerning Sarcocystis species in dromedary camels. However, structural investigations of S. cameli and S. ippeni microcysts by light and transmission electron microscopy in 2015 by Dubey et al. led to a reconsideration of Sarcocystis taxonomy. Sarcocystis camelicanis, S. camelocanis and S. miescheri were considered invalid. Dogs are the most likely definitive hosts as excretion of Sarcocystis sporocysts in the faeces of dogs fed camel meat was reported in several studies [33]. Recently, the first macroscopic sarcocysts from a one-humped camel were confirmed by Dubey et al. [34]. However, there are no reports of macroscopic findings of sarcocystiosis from camels in Iran. Studies on the prevalence and geographic distribution pattern of microcystic infection in the most common sites of infection (i.e. oesophagus, heart, diaphragm, limb muscle and masseter muscle) by the use of the muscle compression/squash method, pepsin/trypsin digestion method and histopathological examination revealed infection rates between 51.5% and 83.6% in at least one of the examined tissues (Table 4). In two ultrastructural and molecular characterisation studies of Sarcocystis isolated from dromedaries in Iran, S. cameli was identified, and a 600-bp specific band was amplified after PCR amplification with specific primers [36, 97]. Nothing is known about Sarcocystis infection in Bactrian camels in Iran. However, in Mongolia and Kazakhstan, Sarcocystis infections have been reported in Bactrian camels but without species differentiation [172].

Table 4.

Prevalence rates of Sarcocystis spp. in camels in Iran.

Besnoitiosis

Knowledge about besnoitiosis is scarce in camels and limited to only two documents reporting Besnoitia cysts in the intestine of dromedaries in India [64] and Iran [68]. In an article on camel diseases in Kenya, the authors stated that systematic besnoitiosis (which they referred to as globidiosis) occurred with clinical signs such as thickening of skin associated with hair loss, white patches on the cornea, nasal discharge, fever and acute (sometimes bloody) diarrhoea. In alimentary cases, acute (haemorrhagic) diarrhoea occurred, followed by rapid loss of condition, although no fever was reported. The fatality rate reached 10% [42]. In histopathological examination of the alimentary tract of 100 camels in Fars Province, Khodakaram Tafti et al. (2001) found Besnoitia parasites in 5% of the samples. In the mucosa of the jejunum and ileum of affected camels, a few small to large cysts with or without inflammatory reaction were seen [67].

Theileriosis

The true role of Theileria parasites as tick-borne pathogens for camels is still not confirmed. So far, DNA of Theileria equi, Theileria mutans, Theileria annulata and Theileria ovis has been detected in peripheral blood of dromedaries worldwide [73, 118, 143, 168, 177]. However, it is still not clear whether these findings result from proliferation of Theileria in camels or transmission of blood parasites at the time of a tick bite. Clinical examination of naturally infected camels revealed fever, superficial lymph node swelling, loss of appetite, a sudden loss of condition and lacrimation. The morbidity rate was high with no lethal cases. Haematological and biochemical changes in sera of infected camels indicated that the disease greatly affects hepatic, renal and muscular functions [60]. In Iran, the most prominent hard tick species infesting camels is Hyalomma dromedarii, which is presumed to be a vector of Theileria spp. (see Tick infestation section). In this country, only two studies have reported intra-erythrocytic forms of the parasite in blood smears in 15.79% and 6.20% of the examined camels, respectively [54, 129]. The first report stated piroplasms in general, and did not differentiate between Theileria spp. and Babesia spp. However, in other studies, piroplasms and their developmental stages were not detected in peripheral blood or lymph nodes of the examined camels [24, 85, 180]. One report described successful treatment with buparvaquone in camels with Theileria piroplasms detected in blood smears and the typical signs of cattle T. annulata infection disappeared [53]. In three studies using PCR-based DNA detection and sequencing, T. equi and T. annulata were confirmed in the blood of randomly tested camels [16, 143], while in another study on the blood of 310 tick-infested camels by PCR, no positive animals were found [87].

Babesiosis

Camels are not described as hosts of Babesia species and as with Theileria infection, no confirmed information is available about camel babesiosis due to the lack of experimental infections. However, typical signs of babesiosis such as fever, anaemia, haemoglobinuria, icterus and gastro-intestinal stasis have been documented in infected camels [162]. So far, the presence of DNA of Babesia caballi has been detected in camels [118], and this could have resulted from infection by infected ticks. There are only three reports on babesiosis in camels from Iran. In a light microscope study, the parasite was found in 3.54% of 113 examined blood samples [129]. In another report, Babesia DNA was found in eight out of 122 randomly tested camels in Iran, albeit without further analysis to species level [63]. Finally, based on PCR and sequencing methods, B. caballi was diagnosed in dromedaries of Iran [45]. Other investigators did not detect Babesia in the peripheral blood of tested animals, whether by light microscopy in 262, 37 and 333 samples, respectively [24, 85, 180] or by PCR [143] (n = 200).

Balantidiosis

Balantidium spp. are often seen in the lumen of the caecum and large intestine of several mammals, such as swine, humans and non-human primates. This ciliated protozoan may cause a zoonotic disease [149]. Occurrence of an outbreak of human balantidiasis was reported in 1948 in the south of Iran by McCarey. Due to their religious beliefs, none of the 87 patients had contact with pigs. Balantidium could not be detected in intestinal contents of sheep, cattle or goats or in river water [78]. The investigator did not suspect the numerous camels as a possible source of zoonotic infection [28]. Pathologic examination of the intestinal lesions in 100 slaughtered camels showed that one of the most frequent findings was balantidiasis of the caecum and colon with a frequency of 19% [67]. In another study, B. coli trophozoites were observed in six out of 28 smears from the mucosa of the ileocaecal junction of camels [85]. Numerous B. coli trophozoites and cysts (15,000/g) without any other parasites were observed in the faeces of an anorexic dromedary with acute diarrhoea. A therapeutic regimen, which included intramuscular antibiotic therapy (ampicillin) and anti-inflammatory drugs (flunixin meglumine), was successful [167]. It is worth noting that under certain circumstances like being under stress, camels might shed ciliate trophozoites in faeces that can be confused with Balantidium. Further research is needed to confirm the pathological significance of these ciliates in camels.

Helminthoses

Helminthoses of the digestive system

The helminth fauna of the digestive tract of camelids is particularly rich with more than 50 species. Symptoms and signs of gastro-intestinal helminths in camels are numerous. The most typical ones are loss of weight, gastritis and/or enteritis, diarrhoea, anaemia and death [29]. Some of these helminths can cause zoonosis [79]. Infection rates of 78%–100% of the examined camels with at least one helminth species are reported from Iran. Camelostrongylus mentulatus, Trichostrongylus probolurus, Haemonchus contortus, Haemonchus longistipes and Stilesia globipunctata are the most common reported helminth species in different studies [10, 22, 37, 75, 84]. Reported helminths from slaughtered dromedaries and their isolation sites are listed in Table 5. There is some debate over the naming of Nematodirella longissimespiculata (syn. Nematodirus longispiculata, Nematodirus alcidis, Nematodirus alcides) in the literature but this name was kept as the most commonly used one.

Table 5.

Helminth species recovered from the digestive system of dromedaries in Iran.

In the only study on the occurrence of gastro-intestinal helminths in Bactrian camels in Iran, Tajik et al. (2011) detected eggs of Strongyloides spp., Marshallagia spp., Nematodirus spp., Trichuris spp. and Moniezia spp. in the faeces of 50 sampled animals [166].

Fasciolosis

Fasciolosis is a parasitic infection with global distribution, causing significant losses in domestic animal production, and it is an important food-borne trematode infection of increasing concern [107]. Both Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica have been reported from several provinces of Iran and in different genera of snails [12]. In the sole specific study on the prevalence and pathology of Fasciola spp. in dromedaries of Iran, Eslami et al. (2003) examined the livers of 409 slaughtered camels and found that 5.3% of animals harboured F. hepatica flukes with an average number of 10.5 parasites per animal [35]. In other studies on liver infection of camels, only one out of 94 examined carcasses was infected with Fasciola [176] or no infected carcasses were found [94]. F. gigantica has also been isolated from camels in Iran [81, 163].

Helminthoses of other organ systems

Echinococcosis

Echinococcus species are highly prevalent and human cystic echinococcosis is hyperendemic in Iran, with a human infection rate of 0.6–1.2/100,000 [136]. Since the study of Alavi and Maghami in 1963, numerous studies on the prevalence of echinococcosis/hydatidosis in different organs of slaughtered camels reported overall rates varying between 7.45% and 70%. Most of the studies examined the lungs and livers of camels; however, hydatid cysts were also found in the spleen and kidneys [3, 7, 8, 20, 21, 41, 56, 70, 75, 83–86, 90, 92, 94, 98, 147, 176]. The sequence analysis of metacestode isolates collected from camels indicated that E. granulosus sensu stricto (formerly G1 and G3 genotypes) and E. canadensis (formerly G6 genotype) infect dromedaries in Iran [93, 155–158, 161].

Lungworm infection

Several nematodes are able to infect the lower respiratory tract of domestic animals, usually resulting in bronchitis or pneumonia, or both [18]. Although Dipetalonema evansi might be observed in pulmonary arteries (see Dipetalonemosis section), two species of Dictyocaulus filaria and Dictyocaulus viviparus (syn. Dictyocaulus cameli) are found in the respiratory tract and lungs of dromedaries worldwide [172]. Dictyocaulus filaria and D. viviparus are not camel-specific and their occurrence in camels could have resulted from cross-infection from ruminants. However, as larvae need moist conditions for survival, lungworm infections are not considered a problem in hot and dry climates. In Iran, D. filaria was isolated from the lungs of 3.3% and 10% of examined dromedaries in two studies [84, 120].

Eyeworm infection

Helminths that affect the animals’ eyes may also cause human infections and are therefore major threats to human communities [112]. So far, Thelazia leesei and T. rhodesi have been reported in OWCs [171]. In the only report on eyeworm infections in camels in Iran, Vosooghi Afshar (1976) examined 400 eyes from slaughtered dromedaries in Tehran for the presence of Thelazia parasites. In total, 70 adult T. leesei worms were isolated. The number of worms varied between three and 10 per infected eye [170].

Dipetalonemosis

Dipetalonema evansi (syn. Deraiophoronema evansi) is the sole filarioid helminth believed to cause clinical disease in camels. The mature worm is typically observed in the testicles, epididymis, spermatic cord, lungs and heart. The sheathed microfilariae can be present in the peripheral bloodstream. Moderate infections are generally asymptomatic; however, severe infections might cause respiratory symptoms, emaciation, apathy, pale mucous membranes, orchitis, aneurysm of the spermatic cord, arteriosclerosis, heart malfunction and nervous impairments [110]. Adult worms have been isolated from the lungs and testicles of camels, and pathological findings described [84, 90, 98, 106, 110, 141]. Microfilariae of D. evansi were reported from blood samples in 0.88%–46.7% of the studied camels [24, 61, 85, 98, 110, 124, 129, 141]. Recently, D. evansi was detected in the blood of 8% of 200 examined camels by PCR and sequencing methods [142]. In this study, analysis of a cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) sequence of filaroid nematodes showed paraphyly of Dipetalonema evansi and Dipetalonema gracile. Further investigations on different gene loci will clarify this nematode’s taxonomic position.

Onchocercosis

Some filarioid species represent major threats for human and animal health and cases of zoonotic onchocercosis are increasingly being reported worldwide [113]. In camels, adult Onchocerca parasites are commonly observed in connective tissues, while microfilariae are found in the dermis and occasionally circulating in peripheral blood. Reports on the prevalence and pathology of Onchocerca fasciata infection in dromedaries indicate that 5.82%–48% of the examined camels had skin lesions due to these filarial worms [11, 38, 40, 66, 75, 85, 91].

Arthropod infections

Tick infestation

Ectoparasites are not critical limiting factors for camel health; however, their presence can affect their productivity, which in turn has economic consequences by reducing animal weight gain and milk yield. Moreover, ticks transmit pathogens that affect animals and human populations. Ticks are abundant on camels of Iran and infestation rates of 9%–85.5% of examined dromedaries have been observed in different studies. Average numbers of 1.27–81.5 ticks per camel were recorded [27, 47, 95, 99, 101, 104, 128, 140]. Reported tick species from dromedaries are enlisted in Table 6.

Table 6.

Tick species collected from dromedaries according to their overall frequency in Iran.

Mange mite infection

Camels are affected by a range of mites including Sarcoptes scabiei, Psoroptes spp., Chorioptes spp. and Demodex spp. [172]. Mange was a major nuisance for the camels of caravans in past times. Camel handlers used to apply tar, turpentine or “wild rocket” oil on the body of the animals. These treatments were repeated until the problem was resolved [164]. Sarcoptic mange is regarded as one of the most prevalent diseases of camels and can also be transmitted to humans. Although mange is common in camels of Iran (A. Sazmand, personal observation) there are few published reports on the disease, and usually without specification of the causative mite species [9, 85]. However, Sarcoptes scabiei var. cameli has been identified in some cases [76]. During examination of the eyelid of domestic herbivores in Iran, Rak and Rahgozar (1975) found demodectic mange infection in 23 out of 153 investigated dromedaries (15%), with no significant histological changes other than distension of the hair follicle [127].

Biting and nuisance flies

Although fly-borne parasitic diseases such as trypanosomosis and nasal bot infection are common, there is a paucity of information about the flies affecting camels. Various species of the Tabanidae and Muscidae families are observed according to a previous report [74] and also the first author’s personal observations.

Myiasis

Nasopharyngeal myiasis caused by Oestridae is very common in old world camelids. The camel nasal bot, Cephalopina titillator, is usually found at necropsy or during meat inspection, and infection rates of up to 80.72% of the examined animals have been reported from Iran [74, 75, 85, 109, 111, 120, 126, 132, 152]. C. titillator was also found in the lungs of four out of 40 examined dromedaries in Iran [109]. There are also two reports of genital and gingival myiasis caused by Wohlfahrtia magnifica. Genital myiasis was recorded around the perineum and vagina of five out of 35 camels in a herd in the southwest of Iran [115]. A single case of gingival myiasis was reported in a 15-year-old camel during inspection of the teeth of slaughtered camels in Mashhad [96].

Linguatulosis

Linguatula serrata, the nose worm of canids, is a well-known zoonotic parasite [32]. The larval stage of L. serrata has been diagnosed in mesenteric and mediastinal lymph nodes, and in the livers and lungs of dromedaries. Up to 162 nymphs were collected by Majidi Rad et al. (2015) from one infected camel [75] (Table 7). There is also one report of L. serrata nymphs in the lungs of a two-humped camel in Iran [50]. One recent paper investigated phylogenetic relationships among seven L. serrata isolates collected from camels, cattle, goats, sheep and dogs of Iran. Neither host species nor geographical location was associated with genotypes [48].

Table 7.

Prevalence in percent of linguatuliasis in camels in Iran.

Conclusion

Camels play an important role in the epidemiology of parasitic diseases under the three aspects of animal health, transmission to other livestock and zoonoses. Parasitic infections of camels may cause reduced milk and meat production, impaired fertility and decreased calving rates. They may also lower the working efficiency or even result in death and consequently high economic losses (e.g. in camels suffering from surra). As a result, there is a need for an integrated control programme against economically important parasites of camels as well as to include parasites in health surveillance of camels. Several species of the order Strongylida can infect both camels and ruminants, and ticks with a low host specificity can be shared by several hosts (e.g. Hyalomma dromedarii) and transmit diseases between them. Consequently, deworming and tick control programmes for camels (as well as for affected livestock) are recommended to avoid cross-infections in mixed farming. Concerning the public health importance of camel parasites, several protozoa (e.g. T. evansi) and helminths (e.g. F. hepatica) may be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected camels or indirectly via invertebrate vectors in their surroundings, or via consumption of infected organs of camels. Therefore, surveillance of camel health as well as improving the community’s knowledge of public health issues in this regard are necessary.

The present work reflects the current state of knowledge on the parasitic fauna of camels in Iran. This knowledge is, however, probably not exhaustive because it was based on clinical and scientific reports and the experience of the authors. Other camel parasites may be present in Iran since they may not have been detected so far and included in published reports, for various reasons. This review will also serve as a reference for future research activities. Detailed epidemiological studies on the parasites of camels strongly call for molecular diagnostic tools for proper classification of species and genotypes to improve the existing diagnostic tools and give more detailed insight into the epidemiology, transmission and risk factors of camel parasites.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

All the authors who provided the data for this review are acknowledged for their contribution to the promotion of veterinary parasitology in Iran. The authors would like to thank Dr. Seyedhossein Hekmatimoghaddam (Department of Laboratory Sciences, School of Paramedicine, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran) for proofreading the manuscript and Parasite journal reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions.

References

  1. Abbassian-Lintzen R. 1960. A preliminary list of ticks (Acarina: Ixodidae) occurring in Iran and their distributional data. Acarologia, 2, 43–61. [Google Scholar]
  2. Abbassian-Lintzen R. 1961. Records of ticks (Acarina: Ixodidae) from southest Iran (Iranian Baluchistan and the Jiroft area). Acarologia, 3, 546–559. [Google Scholar]
  3. Afshar A, Nazarian I, Baghban-Baseer B. 1971. A survey of the incidence of hydatid cyst in camels in south Iran. British Veterinary Journal, 127(11), 544–546. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  4. Agholi M, Taghadosi Z, Mehrabani D, Zahabiun F, Sharafi Z, Motazedian MH, Hatam GR, Naderi Shahabadi S. 2016. Human intestinal sarcocystosis in Iran: there but not seen. Parasitology Research, 115(12), 4527–4533. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Agriculture-Jahad Ministry of Iran. 2016. Annual production report. Tehran, Iran: Department of Animal Production, Agriculture-Jahad Ministry of Iran [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  6. Ahmadi Hamedani M, Ghazvinian K, Darvishi MM. 2014. Hematological and serum biochemical aspects associated with a camel (Camelus dromedarius) naturally infected by Trypanosoma evansi with severe parasitemia in Semnan, Iran. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 4(9), 743–745. [Google Scholar]
  7. Ahmadi NA. 2005. Hydatidosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) and their potential role in the epidemiology of Echinococcus granulosus in Iran. Journal of Helminthology, 79(2), 119–125. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Alavi A, Maghami G. 1963. L’échinococcose hydatidose en Iran. Revue Médicale du Moyen Orient, 3, 205–210. [Google Scholar]
  9. Amri A-A. 1940. Mite. DVM Dissertation, University of Tehran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  10. Anvari Tafti MH, Sazmand A, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Moobedi I. 2013. Gastrointestinal helminths of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in center of Iran. Tropical Biomedicine, 30(1), 56–61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Anvari Tafti MH, Sazmand A, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Moobedi I. 2015. Prevalence and pathology of Onchocerca infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in central parts of Iran. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 9(4), 257–261. [Google Scholar]
  12. Ashrafi K. 2015. The status of human and animal fascioliasis in Iran: a narrative review article. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 10(3), 306–328. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Azmi M. 1938. Chemotherapy in trypanosomosis – study on efficacy of Naganol in camel trypanosomosis. MSc Dissertation, University of Tehran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  14. Badamchi H. 1979. Haemoparasites of camels in slaughterhouse of Tehran. DVM Dissertation, University of Tehran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  15. Badiei K, Ahmadi MR, Nazifi S. 1998. (Equine trypanosomiasis (T. evansi): a case report associated with abortion). Iranian Veterinary Journal, 1(2), 69–75, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  16. Bahrami S, Tabandeh MR, Nikbin A, Alborzi AR, Ghadrdan AR. 2016. Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of Theileria equi in Iranian dromedaries. Archives of Razi Institute, 71(3), 169–175. [Google Scholar]
  17. Bamorovat M, Zarandi MB, Mostafavi M, Kheirandish R, Sharifi I, Radfar MH. 2014. The prevalence of Linguatula serrata nymphs in mesenteric and mediastinal lymph nodes in one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) slaughtered in Rafsanjan slaughterhouse, Iran. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 38(4), 374–377. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  18. Beugnet F, Bourdeau P, Chalvet-Monfray K, Cozma V, Farkas R, Guillot J, Halos L, Joachim A, Losson B, Miró G, Otranto D, Renaud M, Rinaldi L. 2014. Parasites of domestic owned cats in Europe: co-infestations and risk factors. Parasites & Vectors, 7, 291. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Boid R, Jones TW, Luckins AG. 1985. Protozoal diseases of camels. British Veterinary Journal, 141(1), 87–105. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  20. Borji H, Azizzadeh M, Afsai A. 2011. An abattoir-based study of hydatidosis in the dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) in Mashhad, Iran. Journal of Helminthology, 85(4), 478–479. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Borji H, Parandeh S. 2010. The abattoir condemnation of meat because of parasitic infection, and its economic importance: results of a retrospective study in north-eastern Iran. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 104(8), 641–647. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Borji H, Razmi GR, Movassaghi AR, Maleki M. 2010. A study on gastrointestinal helminths of camels in Mashhad abattoir, Iran. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, 11(2), 174–179. [Google Scholar]
  23. Borji H, Razmi GR, Movassaghi AR, Naghibi A, Maleki M. 2009. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Eimeria infections in dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) in abattoir of Mashhad, Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 16(2), 167–170. [Google Scholar]
  24. Borji H, Razmi GR, Parandeh S. 2009. Epidemiological study on haemoparasites of dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 16(2), 217–219. [Google Scholar]
  25. Cacciò SM, Widmer G. 2013. Cryptosporidium: parasite and disease. Vienna: Springer-Verlag. [Google Scholar]
  26. Carpentier G-A-L-E. 1931. Les services vétérinaires en Perse. Paris: Librairie Le François. [Google Scholar]
  27. Champour M, Chinikar S, Mohammadi G, Razmi G, Shah-Hosseini N, Khakifirouz S, Mostafavi E, Jalali T. 2016. Molecular epidemiology of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus detected from ticks of one humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) population in northeastern Iran. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 40(1), 110–115. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  28. Cox FEG. 2005. Human balantidiasis in Iran: are camels reservoir hosts? Trends in Parasitology, 21(12), 553, author reply 554–555. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Dakkak A, Ouhelli H. 1987. Helminths and helminthoses of the dromedary. A review of the literature. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics), 4(1), 447–461. [Google Scholar]
  30. Delpy L, Rafyi A. 1947. La trypanosomiase du dromadaire en Iran, étude experimentale de Trypanosoma evansi (Steel, 1885). Archives of Razi Institute, 5(1), 33–50. [Google Scholar]
  31. Derakhshanfar A, Mozaffari AA, Zadeh AM. 2010. An outbreak of trypanosomiasis (Surra) in camels in the Southern Fars province of Iran: clinical, hematological and pathological findings. Research Journal of Parasitology, 5(1), 23–26. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  32. Dhaliwal BBS, Juyal PD. 2013. Parasitic Zoonoses. New Delhi: Springer India. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  33. Dubey JP, Hilali M, Van Wilpe E, Calero-Bernal R, Verma SK, Abbas IE. 2015. A review of sarcocystosis in camels and redescription of Sarcocystis cameli and Sarcocystis ippeni sarcocysts from the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius). Parasitology, 142(12), 1481–1492. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Dubey JP, A’aji NN, Mowery JD, Verma SK, Calero-Bernal R. 2017. Identification of macroscopic sarcocysts of Sarcocystis cameli from one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Iraq. Journal of Parasitology, 103(2), 168–169. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  35. Eslami A, Ranjbar Bahadori S, Eskandari A, Sedaghat R. 2003. Study on the prevalence and pathology of Fasciola in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Iran. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Tehran, 58(2), 97–100, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  36. Eslampanah M, Motamedi GR, Dalimi A, Noori A, Habibi GR, Aghaeepour K, Niroumand M. 2016. Study of camel and goat Sarcocystis by electron microscopic and PCR-RFLP. Pajouhesh & Sazandegi, 29(3), 77–84, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  37. Etminan S. 1995. Study of intestinal helminths in slaughtered camels in Yazd slaughterhouse. MSc Dissertation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  38. Farjanikish G, Namazi F, Rajabloo M. in press. Prevalence and pathological lesions of onchocercosis (Onchocerca fasciata) in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine, DOI: 10.15547/bjvm.1013 [Google Scholar]
  39. Farjanikish G, Shokrani H. 2016. Prevalence and morphopathological characteristics of linguatulosis in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Yazd, Iran. Parasitology Research, 115(8), 3163–3167. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Farkhondeh S. 1980. Dirofilariosis in camels of Iran. DVM Dissertation, University of Tehran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  41. Fathi S, Mirzaei Dehaghi M, Radfar MH. 2011. Occurrence of hydatidosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) and their potential role in the epidemiology of Echinococcus granulosus in Kerman area, southeast of Iran. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 21(5), 921–927. [Google Scholar]
  42. Fazil M, Hofmann R. 1981. Haltung und Krankheiten des Kamels. Tieraerztliche Praxis, 9, 389–402. [Google Scholar]
  43. Fong IW. 2017. New and emerging parasitic zoonoses, in Emerging Zoonoses. Fong IW, Editor. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. p. 211–239. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  44. Ganjali M, Dabirzadeh M, Sargolzaie M. 2014. Species diversity and distribution of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in Zabol County, eastern Iran. Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases, 8(2), 219–223. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Ganjali Tafreshi A. 2016. Phylogenetic analysis of camel piroplasmids in Iran based on 18s rRNA gene. MSc Dissertation, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  46. Gebremedhin EZ, Yunus HA, Tesfamaryam G, Tessema TS, Dawo F, Terefe G, Di Marco V, Vitale M. 2014. First report of Toxoplasma gondii in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Ethiopia: bioassay and seroepidemiological investigation. BMC Veterinary Research, 10, 222. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Ghashghaei O, Nourollahi Fard SR, Khalili M, Sharifi H. 2016. Abundance and associated risk factors of ixodid ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) collected from one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Sistan and Balouchestan region, southeast of Iran. Persian Journal of Acarology, 5(3), 219–227. [Google Scholar]
  48. Ghorashi SA, Tavassoli M, Peters A, Shamsi S, Hajipour N. 2016. Phylogenetic relationships among Linguatula serrata isolates from Iran based on 18S rRNA and mitochondrial cox1 gene sequences. Acta Parasitologica, 61(1), 195–200. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Haddadzadeh H, Athari S, Abedini R, Khazraii Nia S, Khazraii Nia P, Nabian S, Haji-Mohamadi B. 2010. One-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) infestation with Linguatula serrata in Tabriz, Iran. Iranian Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases, 4(1), 54–59. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Haddadzadeh H, Athari SS, Hajimohammadi B. 2009. The first record of Linguatula serrata infection of two-humped camel (Camelus bactrinus) in Iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 4(1), 59–61. [Google Scholar]
  51. Hamidinejat H, Ghorbanpour M, Rasooli A, Nouri M, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Mohammad Namavari M, Pourmendi-Borojeni M, Sazmand A. 2013. Occurrence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum antibodies in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the center of Iran. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 37, 277–281. [Google Scholar]
  52. Hamidinejat H, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Jafari H, Sazmand A, Haddad Molayan P, Derakhshan L, Mirabdollahi S. 2013. Prevalence and distribution patterns of Sarcocystis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Yazd Province, Iran. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 37(2), 163–165. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  53. Hamidinejat H, Razi Jalali MH, Nouri M. 2008. Report of clinical theileriosis in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Khuzestan Province, Iran, in 15th Iran Veterinary Congress. Tehran, Iran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  54. Hekmatimoghaddam S, Sazmand A, Rasooli A, Hamidinejat H, Jafari H. 2012. Laboratory tests in dromedary camels naturally infected with piroplasms in Iran: study and review of literature. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 19(2), 217–221. [Google Scholar]
  55. Higgins A. 1986. The camel in health and disease. London: Baillière Tindall. [Google Scholar]
  56. Hosseini SH, Bokaei S, Motevaselolhoseini M. 1999. Hydatid cyst and its role in epidemiology of Echinococcus granulosus in camel. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Tehran, 53(3,4), 83–86, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  57. Hosseini SR, Atayi A, Rahimi E, Jafarian M. 2010. Prevalence of sarcocystosis in slaughtered camels of Najaf Abad slaughterhouse. Journal of Veterinary Pathobiology, 1(2), 41–48, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  58. Hosseininejad M, Pirali Kheirabadi K, Hosseini F. 2009. Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Isfahan Province, center of Iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 4(4), 61–64. [Google Scholar]
  59. Hosseininejad M, Shirani D, Nabian S, Nassiri SM, Mazaheri R. 2006. Trypanosoma evansi in three dogs in Iran. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 16(1), 69–71. [Google Scholar]
  60. Ismael AB, Swelum AA, Khalaf AF, Abouheif MA. 2014. Clinical, haematological and biochemical alterations associated with an outbreak of theileriosis in dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 34(2), 209–213. [Google Scholar]
  61. Karimi A, Rahbari S, Yousefi A. 2015. Blood parasites of camels from central regions of Iran: comparative evaluation of various detection techniques and serum protein components. Journal of Advances in Parasitology, 2(1), 1–4. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  62. Khamesipour F, Doosti A, Iranpour Mobarakeh H, Komba EVG. 2014. Toxoplasma gondii in cattle, camels and sheep in Isfahan and Chaharmahal va Bakhtiary Provinces, Iran. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology, 7(6), e17460. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Khamesipour F, Doosti A, Koohi A, Chehelgerdi M, Mokhtari-Farsani A, Chengula AA. 2015. Determination of the presence of Babesia species in blood samples of cattle, camel and sheep in Iran by PCR. Archives of Biological Sciences, 67(1), 83–90. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  64. Kharole MU, Gupta SK, Singh J. 1981. Note on besnoitiosis in a camel. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 51, 802–804. [Google Scholar]
  65. Kheirandish R, Nourollahi Fard SR, Faryabi Z. 2012. Prevalence and pathologic study of Eimeria cameli in slaughtered camels. Eurasian Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 28(3), 138–141. [Google Scholar]
  66. Khodakaram-Tafti A, Khordadmehr M. 2010. Gross and histopathological lesions of onchocercosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 17(1), 37–39. [Google Scholar]
  67. Khodakaram-Tafti A, Maleki M, Oryan A. 2001. Pathological study of intestines and mesentric lymph nodes of camels (Camelus dromedarius) slaughtered in Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 8(2), 209–213. [Google Scholar]
  68. Khodakaram-Tafti A, Maleki M, Oryan A, Mozaffari AA. 2000. Pathological study of digestive system lesions of camels (Camelus dromedarius) slaughtered in Iran. in Proceedings of 18th Meeting of the European Society of Veterinary Pathology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. [Google Scholar]
  69. Khosravi A, Hakimi Parizi M, Bamorovat M, Borhani Zarandi M, Mohammadi MA. 2015. Prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in camels using molecular and parasitological methods in the southeast of Iran, 2011. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 39(3), 422–425. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  70. Kojouri GA, Nourani H, Sadeghian S, Imani H, Raisi A. 2014. Pathological findings of slaughtered camels’ (Camelus dromedaris) kidneys in Najaf-Abad, Iran. Veterinary Research Forum, 5(3), 231–235. [Google Scholar]
  71. Kumar S, Ghorui S, Patil NV. 2016. Eimeria leuckarti from dromedaries camel calves. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 23(1), 91–94. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  72. Lingard A. 1893. Report on horse Surra. Bombay: Government Central Press. [Google Scholar]
  73. Lorusso V, Wijnveld M, Latrofa MS, Fajinmi A, Majekodunmi AO, Dogo AG, Igweh AC, Otranto D, Jongejan F, Welburn SC, Picozzi K. 2016. Canine and ovine tick-borne pathogens in camels, Nigeria. Veterinary Parasitology, 228, 90–92. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Maghami G. 1968. External parasite of livestock in Iran. Archives of Razi Institute, 20, 81–83. [Google Scholar]
  75. Majidi Rad M, Hosseini SH, Rajabloo M, Nabian S, Gerami Sadeghian A. 2015. Parasites of one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran: an abattoir study. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 22(2), 261–264. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  76. Makhsoos S. 1989. Study of camels’ mange (Sarcoptes scabiei var. cameli) in Abyek slaughterhouse of Qazvin. MSc Dissertation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  77. Mazlum Z. 1971. Ticks of domestic animals in Iran: geographic distribution, host relation, and seasonal activity. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Tehran, 27(1), 1–32, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  78. McCarey AG. 1952. Balantidiasis in South Persia. British Medical Journal, 1(4759), 629–631. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. McCarthy J, Moore TA. 2000. Emerging helminth zoonoses. International Journal for Parasitology, 30(12–13), 1351–1359. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Mehrabiyan S, Mahzounieh M, Rabbani-Khorasgani MTH, Amiri-Dehcheshmeh JA, Ghorbani A, Esmaili-Najafabadi H, Salimi M. 2014. Molecular detection of Trypanosoma from one-humped camels slaughtered in Najafabad slaughterhouse. Biological Journal of Microorganism, 3(10), 45–50, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  81. Meshgi B, Eslami A, Hosseini SH, Hemmatzadeh F, Hooshmand E. 2007. Comparative assessment of electrophoretic patterns of Fasciola somatic antigens in different hosts. Pajouhesh & Sazandegi, 75, 156–159, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  82. Mirzaei M, Rezaei H, Ashrafihelan J, Nematollahi A. 2013. The prevalence of Linguatula serrata nymphs in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Northwest of Iran. Scientia Parasitologica, 14(1), 47–50. [Google Scholar]
  83. Mirzaei M, Rezaei H, Nematollahi A, Ashrafihelan J. 2016. Survey of hydatidosis infection in slaughtered camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Tabriz area, Northwest Iran. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 40(2), 444–447. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  84. Mirzayans A, Halim R. 1980. Parasitic infection of Camelus dromedarius from Iran. Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique et de ses Filiales, 73(4), 442–445. [Google Scholar]
  85. Mizan Zadeh H. 1995. Study of diversity and prevalence of occurance of diseases in slaughtered camels in Najaf-Abad slaughterhouse. DVM Dissertation, University of Tehran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  86. Mobedi I, Madadi H, Arfaa F. 1970. Camel, Camelus dromedarius, as intermediate host of Echinococcus granulosus in Iran. Journal of Parasitology, 56(6), 1255. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  87. Moezi V, Sarani A, Hashemi H, Rasekh M. 2016. Molecular study of Theileria camelensis and Theileria dromedarii strains based on sequence of 18S ribosomal DNA fragment in camels. Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 8(2), 399–406. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  88. Moghaddar N, Dianatpour V. 2009. Distribution pattern of Trypanosoma evansi in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 16(1), 73–75. [Google Scholar]
  89. Moghaddar N, Oryan A, Gorjipour S, Akbari M. 2010. Studies on seasonal prevalence and clinico-pathology of gastro-intestinal helminths of camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran with special reference to Nematodirinae nematodes. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 17(2), 147–150. [Google Scholar]
  90. Moghaddar N, Oryan A, Hanif Pour MR. 1992. Helminths recovered from the liver and lungs of camel with special reference to their incidence and pathogenesis in Shiraz, Islamic Republic of Iran. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 62(11), 1018–1023. [Google Scholar]
  91. Moghaddar N, Zahedie A. 2006. Prevalence and pathogenesis of Onchocerca fasciata infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 13(1), 31–35. [Google Scholar]
  92. Moghaddas E, Borji H, Naghibi A, Razmi G, Shayan P. 2014. Epidemiological study of hydatidosis in the dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) of different regions of Iran. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 4(Suppl 1), S148–S151. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Moghaddas E, Borji H, Naghibi A, Shayan P, Razmi GR. 2015. Molecular genotyping of Echinococcus granulosus from dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) in eastern Iran. Journal of Helminthology, 89(1), 100–104. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Mohamadzadeh T, Shams T, Khanaliha S, Marhamatizadeh MH, Vafa A. 2016. A study on prevalence of some helminthic infections of the liver and lungs among ruminants in abattoir of Fars province, Iran. Archives of Razi Institute, 71(4), 245–251. [Google Scholar]
  95. Moshaverinia A, Moghaddas E. 2015. Prevalence of tick infestation in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) brought for slaughter in Mashhad abattoir, Iran. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 39(3), 452–455. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  96. Moshaverinia A, Moghaddas E, Maleki M, Borji H. 2013. Gingival myiasis of camel (Camelus dromedarius) caused by Wohlfahrtia magnifica. Scientia Parasitologica, 14(2), 85–87. [Google Scholar]
  97. Motamedi GR, Dalimi A, Nouri A, Aghaeipour K. 2011. Ultrastructural and molecular characterization of Sarcocystis isolated from camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran. Parasitology Research, 108(4), 949–954. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Mowlavi G, Massoud J, Mobedi I. 1997. Hydatidosis and testicular filariasis (D. evansi) in camel (C. dromedarius) in central part of Iran. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 26(1–2), 21–28. [Google Scholar]
  99. Najarnezhad V, Mishmast Z, Razmi G, Azad M. 2009. Identification of Ixodidae ticks of imported camels in Zabol area. Pajouhesh & Sazandegi, 85, 35–39, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  100. Nazifi S, Behzadi MA, Haddadi SH, Raayat Jahromi A, Mehrshad S, Tamadon A. 2010. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium isolated from dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Qeshm Island, Southern Iran. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 19(3), 311–314. [Google Scholar]
  101. Nazifi S, Tamadon A, Behzadi M-A, Haddadi S, Raayat-Jahromi A-R. 2011. One-humped camels (Camelus dromedaries) hard ticks infestation in Qeshm Island, Iran. Veterinary Research Forum, 2(2), 135–138. [Google Scholar]
  102. Nouri M, Razmyar J, Keyhani P. 1995. A Cryptosporidium muris like parasite in large ruminants in various parts of Iran. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Tehran, 50(3&4), 1–5, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  103. Nourian A. 1992. Serological study of toxoplasmosis in camels of Fars Province. DVM Dissertation, Shiraz University, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  104. Nourollahi Fard SR, Fathi S, Norouzi Asl E, Asgary Nazhad H, Salehzadeh Kazeroni S. 2012. Hard ticks on one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) and their seasonal population dynamics in southeast, Iran. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 44(1), 197–200. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Nourollahi Fard SR, Ghalekhani N, Kheirandish R, Fathi S, Norouzi Asl E. 2012. The prevalence of Linguatula serrata nymphs in camels slaughtered in Mashhad slaughterhouse, Northeast, Iran. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2(11), 885–888. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Nourollahi Fard SR, Kheirandish R, Fathi S, Norouzi Asl E. 2011. Prevalence of Dipetalonema evansi infection in Camelus dromedaries. Online Journal of Veterinary Research, 15(3), 261–269. [Google Scholar]
  107. Nyindo M, Lukambagire A-H. 2015. Fascioliasis: an ongoing zoonotic trematode infection. BioMed Research International, 2015, 786195. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Oryan A, Khordadmehr M, Ranjbar VR. 2011. Prevalence, biology, pathology, and public health importance of linguatulosis of camel in Iran. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 43(6), 1225–1231. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Oryan A, Moghaddar N, Hanifepour MR. 1993. Arthropods recovered from the visceral organs of camel with special reference to their incidence and pathogenesis in Fars Province of Iran. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 63(3), 290–293. [Google Scholar]
  110. Oryan A, Valinezhad A, Bahrami S. 2008. Prevalence and pathology of camel filariasis in Iran. Parasitology Research, 103(5), 1125–1131. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Oryan A, Valinezhad A, Moraveji M. 2008. Prevalence and pathology of camel nasal myiasis in eastern areas of Iran. Tropical Biomedicine, 25(1), 30–36. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Otranto D, Eberhard ML. 2011. Zoonotic helminths affecting the human eye. Parasites & Vectors, 4(1), 41. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Otranto D, Giannelli A, Scotty Trumble N, Chavkin M, Kennard G, Latrofa MS, Bowman DD, Dantas-Torres F, Eberhard ML. 2015. Clinical case presentation and a review of the literature of canine onchocercosis by Onchocerca lupi in the United States. Parasites & Vectors, 8(1), 89. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Pasalary M, Arbabi M, Pashei S, Abdigoudarzi M. 2017. Fauna of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and their seasonal infestation rate on Camelus dromedarius (Mammalia: Camelidae) in Masileh region, Qom province, Iran. Persian Journal of Acarology, 6(1), 31–37. [Google Scholar]
  115. Pirali Kheirabadi K, Dehghani Samani A, Rajabi Vardanjani H. 2014. A report on the genital myiasis by Wohlfahrtia magnifica in camel herds in southwest of Iran. Veterinary Research Forum, 5(4), 329–332. [Google Scholar]
  116. Pourjafar M, Azizi H, Darabi S, Khosravi M. 2007. The prevalence of nymphal stage of Linguatula serrata in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Najaf-Abad. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 14(2), 171–173. [Google Scholar]
  117. Pourjafar M, Badiei K, Sharifiyazdi H, Chalmeh A, Naghib M, Babazadeh M, Mootabi Alavi A, Hosseini Joshani-Zadeh N. 2013. Genetic characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Trypanosoma evansi in Iranian dromedary camels. Parasitology Research, 112(2), 899–903. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Qablan MA, Sloboda M, Jirků M, Oborník M, Dwairi S, Amr ZS, Hořín P, Lukeš J, Modrý D. 2012. Quest for the piroplasms in camels: identification of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi in Jordanian dromedaries by PCR. Veterinary Parasitology, 186(3–4), 456–460. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Radfar MH, Aminzadeh Gowhari M. 2013. Common gastrointestinal parasites of indigenous camels (Camelus dromedarius) with traditional husbandry management (free-ranging system) in central deserts of Iran. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 37(2), 225–230. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  120. Radfar MH, Ebrahimy Maimand A, Sharify A. 2006. A report on parasitic infections in camel (Camelus dromedarius) of Kerman slaughterhouse. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Tehran, 61(2), 165–168, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  121. Radfar MH, Fathi S, Norouzi Asl E. 2010. Prevalence of Linguatula serrata nymphs in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) in southeast of Iran. Scientia Parasitologica, 11(4), 199–202. [Google Scholar]
  122. Radfar MH, Gowhari MA, Khalili M. 2013. Comparison of capture ELISA and modified Ziehl-Neelsen for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in feces of camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran. Scientia Parasitologica, 14(3), 147–152. [Google Scholar]
  123. Rafyi A, Maghami G. 1951. Action préventive et curative du méthylsulfate d’antrycide dans la trypanomiase à T. evansi. Archives of Razi Institute, 8(1), 59–63. [Google Scholar]
  124. Rahbari S, Bazargani TT. 1995. Blood parasites in camels of Iran. Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 9, 45–46. [Google Scholar]
  125. Rahbari S, Bazargani TT, Rak H. 1981. Sarcocystosis in the camel in Iran. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Tehran, 37, 1–10, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  126. Rak H, Anwar M. 1974. Some diptera larvae causing myiasis in Iran. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 110, 79–80. [Google Scholar]
  127. Rak H, Rahgozar R 1975. Demodectic mange in the eyelid of domestic ruminants in Iran. Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique et de ses Filiales, 68(6), 591–593. [Google Scholar]
  128. Ranjbar Bahadori S. 2003. Study of species diversity of animal ticks in Garmsar. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Tehran, 58(1), 11–14, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  129. Ranjbar Bahadori S, Afshari Moghaddam A. 2009. Study of the prevalence of haemoparasites in camels of Zabol County in the year 2008. Veterinary Clinical Pathology, 3(2), 503–507, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  130. Raoofi A, Kazempoor R, Akbarinejad V, Shojaei M, Tabatabaei SS. 2009. Natural trypanosomosis in a bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) in Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 16(2), 233–235. [Google Scholar]
  131. Razavi SM, Oryan A, Bahrami S, Mohammadalipour A, Gowhari M. 2009. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in a slaughterhouse in Iran. Tropical Biomedicine, 26(3), 267–273. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Razi Jalali MH, Dehghan S, Haji A, Ebrahimi M. 2016. Myiasis caused by Cephalopina titillator (Diptera: Oestridae) in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of semi-arid areas in Iran: distribution and associated risk factors. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 25(4), 677–680. [Google Scholar]
  133. Rezaei F, Tavassoli M, Javdani M. 2012. Prevalence and morphological characterizations of Linguatula serrata nymphs in camels in Isfahan Province, Iran. Veterinary Research Forum, 3(1), 61–65. [Google Scholar]
  134. Robertson LJ, Björkman C, Axén C, Fayer R. 2014. Cryptosporidiosis in farmed animals, in Cryptosporidium: Parasite and Disease, Cacciò SM. Windmer G, Editors Springer: Vienna. p. 149–235. [Google Scholar]
  135. Rocky A, Razi Jalali MH, Hajikolaei MRH, Hamidinejat H, Shirazi M. 2011. First report of infection of water buffalo with Trypanosoma evansi in Ahvaz city. in 2nd Iranian Congress of Veterinary Pathobiology. Garmsar, Iran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  136. Rokni MB. 2009. Echinococcosis /hydatidosis in Iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 4(2), 1–16. [Google Scholar]
  137. Sadrebazzaz A, Haddadzadeh H, Shayan P. 2006. Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Mashhad, Iran. Parasitology Research, 98(6), 600–601. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Safarpoor Dehkordi F, Haghighi Borujeni MR, Rahimi E, Abdizadeh R. 2013. Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in raw caprine, ovine, buffalo, bovine, and camel milk using cell cultivation, cat bioassay, capture ELISA, and PCR methods in Iran. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 10(2), 120–125. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Salim Abadi Y, Telmadarraiy Z, Vatandoost H, Chinikar S, Oshaghi M, Moradi M, Mirabzadeh Ardakan E, Hekmat S, Nasiri A. 2010. Hard ticks on domestic ruminants and their seasonal population dynamics in Yazd province, Iran. Iranian Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases, 4(1), 66–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Salimi Bejestani MR, Changizi E, Darvishi MM. 2016. Abnormal life cycle of Hyalomma dromedarii (Acari: Ixodidae) on single-humped camels in Semnan, North-East of Iran. Archives of Razi Institute, 71(3), 195–198. [Google Scholar]
  141. Sazmand A, Anvari Tafti MH, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Moobedi I. 2013. Dipetalonema evansi infection in camels of Iran’s central area. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 16(13), 647–650. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  142. Sazmand A, Eigner B, Mirzaei M, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Harl J, Duscher GG, Fuehrer H-P, Joachim A. 2016. Molecular identification and phylogenetic analysis of Dipetalonema evansi (LEWIS, 1882) in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Iran. Parasitology Research, 115(4), 1605–1610. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Sazmand A, Eigner B, Mirzaei M, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Harl J, Duscher GG, Fuehrer H-P, Joachim A. 2016. Molecular identification of hemoprotozoan parasites in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 11(4), 568–573. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Sazmand A, Hamidinejat H, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Asadollahi Z, Mirabdollahi S. 2012. Eimeria infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Yazd Province, central Iran. Tropical Biomedicine, 29(1), 77–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Sazmand A, Rasooli A, Nouri M, Hamidinejat H, Hekmatimoghaddam S. 2011. Serobiochemical alternations in subclinically affected dromedary camels with Trypanosoma evansi in Iran. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 31(3), 223–226. [Google Scholar]
  146. Sazmand A, Rasooli A, Nouri M, Hamidinejat H, Hekmatimoghaddam S. 2012. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in camels and involved people in Yazd Province, Iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 7(1), 80–84. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Sazmand A, Razi Jalali MH, Hekmatimoghaddam S, Asadollahi Z. 2013. Seroprevalence of hydatidosis in camels of Yazd Province, Iran. Journal of Veterinary Laboratory Research, 5(2), 121–128, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  148. Sazmand A, Tavassoli M, Ebrahimnejad B, Kazemnia A, Asadollahi Z. 2014. PCR assays for detection of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Iranian camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Yazd Province. Journal of Veterinary Clinical Pathology, 8(29), 383–389, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  149. Schuster FL, Ramirez-Avila L. 2008. Current world status of Balantidium coli. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 21(4), 626–638. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Serrano-Martínez E, Collantes-Fernández E, Chávez-Velásquez A, Rodríguez-Bertos A, Casas-Astos E, Risco-Castillo V, Rosadio-Alcantara R, Ortega-Mora LM. 2007. Evaluation of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii infections in alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama) aborted foetuses from Peru. Veterinary Parasitology, 150(1–2), 39–45. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Shahraki F. 2016. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum in camels of Sistan region by ELISA and assessment of risk factors season, age and sex. DVM Dissertation, University of Zabol, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  152. Shakerian A, Hosseini SR, Abbasi M. 2011. Prevalence of Cephalopina titillator (Diptera: Oestridae) larvae in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Najaf-Abad, Iran. Global Veterinaria, 6(3), 320–323. [Google Scholar]
  153. Shakerian A, Shekarforoush SS, Ghafari Rad H. 2008. Prevalence of Linguatula serrata nymphs in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Najaf-Abad, Iran. Research in Veterinary Science, 84(2), 243–245. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Shaki M, Tājbaḵš Ḥ, Sajjādī Ṣ. 1993. Dām Pezeškī (veterinary medicine), Encyclopaedia Iranica, VI/6; available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dam-pezeski-veterinary-medicine (accessed online at 2 June 2017).. [Google Scholar]
  155. Sharafi SM, Rostami-Nejad M, Moazeni M, Yousefi M, Saneie B, Hosseini-Safa A, Yousofi-Darani H. 2014. Echinococcus granulosus genotypes in Iran. Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench, 7(2), 82–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Sharbatkhori M, Fasihi-Harandi M, Mirhendi H, Hajialilo E, Kia EB. 2011. Sequence analysis of cox1 and nad1 genes in Echinococcus granulosus G3 genotype in camels (Camelus dromedarius) from central Iran. Parasitology Research, 108(3), 521–527. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Sharbatkhori M, Mirhendi H, Jex AR, Pangasa A, Campbell BE, Kia EB, Eshraghian MR, Harandi MF, Gasser RB. 2009. Genetic categorization of Echinococcus granulosus from humans and herbivorous hosts in Iran using an integrated mutation scanning-phylogenetic approach. Electrophoresis, 30(15), 2648–2655. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Sharbatkhori M, Tanzifi A, Rostami S, Rostami M, Fasihi Harandi M. 2016. Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato genotypes in domestic livestock and humans in Golestan Province, Iran. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 58, 38. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  159. Shekarforoush SS, Shakerian A, Hasanpoor MM. 2006. Prevalence of Sarcocystis in slaughtered one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 38(4), 301–303. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Shimi A. 1940. Study of surra disease in Iran. DVM Dissertation, University of Tehran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  161. Spotin A, Mahami-Oskouei M, Harandi MF, Baratchian M, Bordbar A, Ahmadpour E, Ebrahimi S. 2017. Genetic variability of Echinococcus granulosus complex in various geographical populations of Iran inferred by mitochondrial DNA sequences. Acta Tropica, 165, 10–16. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  162. Swelum AA, Ismael AB, Khalaf AF, Abouheif MA. 2014. Clinical and laboratory findings associated with naturally occurring babesiosis in dromedary camels. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy, 58(2), 229–233. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  163. Tadayon S, Sharifiyazdi H, Moazeni M, Divar MR. 2015. Molecular differentiation of Fasciola species and characterization of genetic diversity of F. gigantica using NADH dehydrogenase I (ND1) gene in the endemic areas of Iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitology, 10(1), 9–18. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  164. Tadjbakhsh H. 1994. Traditional methods used for controlling animal diseases in Iran. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics), 13(2), 599–614. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  165. Tajik H, Tavassoli M, Khani H, Javadi S. 2007. Prevalence of Linguatula serrata nymphs in slaughtered camels of Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 14(1), 69–71. [Google Scholar]
  166. Tajik J, Moghaddar N, Nikjou D, Taleban Y. 2011. Occurrence of gastrointestinal helminths in Bactrian camel in Iran. Tropical Biomedicine, 28(2), 362–365. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  167. Tajik J, Nourollahi Fard SR, Paidar A, Anousheh S, Dehghani E. 2013. Balantidiasis in a dromedarian camel. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 3(5), 409–412. [Google Scholar]
  168. Tomassone L, Grego E, Callà G, Rodighiero P, Pressi G, Gebre S, Zeleke B, De Meneghi D. 2012. Ticks and tick-borne pathogens in livestock from nomadic herds in the Somali Region, Ethiopia. Experimental & Applied Acarology, 56(4), 391–401. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  169. Valinezhad A, Oryan A, Ahmadi N. 2008. Sarcocystis and its complications in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of eastern provinces of Iran. Korean Journal of Parasitology, 46(4), 229–234. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  170. Vosooghi Afshar A. 1976. Study of occular Thelazia parasites in the eyes of domestic ruminants in Tehran slaughterhouse. DVM Dissertation, University of Tehran, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  171. Wernery U, Kaaden OR. 2002. Infectious Diseases in Camelids, 2nd edn. Blackwell Science: Berlin. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  172. Wernery U, Kinne J, Schuster RK. 2014. Camelid Infectious Disorders. Paris: OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health). [Google Scholar]
  173. Yakhchali M, Athari S. 2010. A study on prevalence of Eimeria spp. infection in camels of Tabriz region. Archives of Razi Institute, 65(2), 111–115. [Google Scholar]
  174. Yakhchali M, Cheraghi E. 2007. Eimeriosis in Bactrian and dromedary camels in the Miandoab region, Iran. Acta Veterinaria (Belgrade), 57(5–6), 545–552. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  175. Yakhchali M, Moradi T. 2012. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium-like infection in one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) of northwestern Iran. Parasite, 19(1), 71–75. [CrossRef] [EDP Sciences] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  176. Yazdanbakhsh A, Hatami H, Sharifiarab G, Arabameri M. 2016. Evaluation of slaughtered camels liver infection in Shahroud in 2015. Journal of Knowledge & Health, 11(3), 49–54, [in Persian with English abstract]. [Google Scholar]
  177. Youssef SY, Yasien S, Mousa WMA, Nasr SM, El-Kelesh EAM, Mahran KM, Abd-El-Rahman AH. 2015. Vector identification and clinical, hematological, biochemical, and parasitological characteristics of camel (Camelus dromedarius) theileriosis in Egypt. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 47(4), 649–656. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  178. Zakian A, Nouri M, Safaei P, Mohammad-Sadegh M, Kahroba H, Mokhber Dezfouli MR, Moallemian R. 2017. An acute outbreak of natural Trypanosoma evansi infection in camel (Camelus dromedarius) herds in the southwestern Iran. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 26(1), 51–59. [Google Scholar]
  179. Zangooyi F. 2017. Molecular study of infection of camels of Sistan region to Trypanosoma evansi. DVM Dissertation, University of Zabol, [in Persian]. [Google Scholar]
  180. Zarif Fard MR, Hashemi Fesharaki R. 2000. Study on tissue and blood protozoa of camels in southern Iran. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 7(2), 193–194. [Google Scholar]

Cite this article as: Sazmand A & Joachim A: Parasitic diseases of camels in Iran (1931–2017) – a literature review. Parasite, 2017, 24, 21.

All Tables

Table 1.

Prevalence rates of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels in Iran.

In the text
Table 2.

Prevalence rates of Eimeria in camels in Iran.

In the text
Table 3.

Prevalence rates of Cryptosporidium spp. in camels in Iran.

In the text
Table 4.

Prevalence rates of Sarcocystis spp. in camels in Iran.

In the text
Table 5.

Helminth species recovered from the digestive system of dromedaries in Iran.

In the text
Table 6.

Tick species collected from dromedaries according to their overall frequency in Iran.

In the text
Table 7.

Prevalence in percent of linguatuliasis in camels in Iran.

In the text

Current usage metrics show cumulative count of Article Views (full-text article views including HTML views, PDF and ePub downloads, according to the available data) and Abstracts Views on Vision4Press platform.

Data correspond to usage on the plateform after 2015. The current usage metrics is available 48-96 hours after online publication and is updated daily on week days.

Initial download of the metrics may take a while.