EDP Sciences logo
Submit your paper
Search
Menu
All issues Volume 33 (2026) Parasite, 33 (2026) 13 References
Open Access
Review
Issue
Parasite
Volume 33, 2026
Article Number 13
Number of page(s) 11
DOI https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2026014
Published online 19 March 2026
  1. Baldacchino F, Muenworn V, Desquesnes M, Desoli F, Charoenviriyaphap T, Duvallet G. 2013. Transmission of pathogens by Stomoxys flies (Diptera, Muscidae): A review. Parasite, 20, 26. [CrossRef] [EDP Sciences] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Balmoș OM, Supeanu A, Tamba P, Horváth C, Panait LC, Sándor AD, Cazan CD, Ungur A, Motiu M, Manita FA, Ancuceanu BC, Bărbuceanu F, Dhollander S, Mihalca AD. 2023. African swine fever virus load in hematophagous dipterans collected in outbreaks from Romania: Risk factors and implications. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 2023, 3548109. [Google Scholar]
  3. Brothers PS, Collins NE, Oosthuizen MC, Bhoora R, Troskie M, Penzhorn B. 2011. Occurrence of blood-borne tick-transmitted parasites in common tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus) antelope in Northern Cape Province South Africa. Veterinary Parasitology, 183, 160–165. [Google Scholar]
  4. Burg JG, Neely DMB, Williams NM, Knapp FW. 1994. Retention and attempted mechanical transmission of Ehrlichia risticii by Stomoxys calcitrans. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 8, 43–46. [Google Scholar]
  5. Buxton BA, Schultz RD, Collins WE. 1982. Role of insects in the transmission of bovine leukosis virus: potential for transmission by mosquitoes. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 43, 1458–1459. [Google Scholar]
  6. Cassedy A, Parle-McDermott A, O’Kennedy R. 2021. Virus detection: a review of the current and emerging molecular and immunological methods. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, 8, 637559. [Google Scholar]
  7. Castro BG, Souza MM, Regua-Mangia AH, Bittencourt AJ. 2016. Genetic relationship between Escherichia coli strains isolated from dairy mastitis and from the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, 36, 479–484. [Google Scholar]
  8. Chang G, Behera P, Das SK, Saikia B, Ghosh S, Biswas P, Kumar A, Alam SS, Kawlni L, Lalnunpuia C, Lalchhandama C, Bachan M, Debbarma A. 2018. Stomoxys calcitrans and its importance in livestock: a review. International Journal of Advance Agricultural Research, 6, 30–37. [Google Scholar]
  9. Changbunjong T, Sungpradi S, Kanthasaewee O, Sedwisai P, Tangsudjai S, Ruangsittichai J. 2016. Molecular detection of Theileria and Babesia in a diversity of stomoxyini flies (Diptera: Muscidae) from Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 46, 227–234. [Google Scholar]
  10. Cherenet T, Sani RA, Speybroeck N, Panandam JM, Nadzr S, Van den Bossche P. 2006. A comparative longitudinal study of bovine trypanosomiasis in tsetse-free and tsetse-infested zones of the Amhara Region northwest Ethiopia. Veterinary Parasitology, 140, 251–258. [Google Scholar]
  11. Cho JG, Dee SA. 2006. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Theriogenology, 66, 655–662. [Google Scholar]
  12. Clift SJ, Collins NE, Oosthuizen MC, Steyl JC, Lawrence JA, Mitchell EP. 2020. The pathology of pathogenic theileriosis in African wild artiodactyls. Veterinary Pathology, 57, 24–48. [Google Scholar]
  13. Cuthbert RN, Darriet F, Chabrerie O, Lenoir J, Courchamp F, Claeys C, Robert V, Jourdain F, Ulmer R, Diagne C, Ayala D, Simard F, Morand S, Renault D. 2023. Invasive hematophagous arthropods and associated diseases in a changing world. Parasites & Vectors, 16, 291. [Google Scholar]
  14. Dagnachew S, Bezie M. 2015. Review on Trypanosoma vivax. African Journal of Basic Applied Sciences, 7, 41–64. [Google Scholar]
  15. Dsouli-Aymes N, Michaux J, De Stordeur E, Couloux A, Veuille M, Duvallet G. 2011. Global population structure of the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) inferred by mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 11, 334–342. [Google Scholar]
  16. Duvallet G, Hogsette JA. 2023. Global diversity distribution and genetic studies of stable flies (Stomoxys sp.). Diversity, 15, 600. [Google Scholar]
  17. Elkan PW, Parnell R, Smith JLD. 2009. A die-off of large ungulates following a Stomoxys biting fly out-break in lowland forest northern Republic of Congo. African Journal of Ecology, 47, 528–536. [Google Scholar]
  18. Foil LD, Meek CL, Adams WV, Issel CJ. 1983. Mechanical transmission of equine infectious anemia virus by deer flies (Chrysops flavidus) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans). American Journal of Veterinary Research, 44, 155–156. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Gibbs EPJ, Jonnson RH, Gatehouse AG. 1973. A laboratory technique for studying the mechanical transmission of bovine herpes mammillitis virus by the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans L). Research in Veterinary Science, 14, 145–149. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Golnar AJ, Kading RC, Hamer GL. 2018. Quantifying the potential pathways and locations of Rift Valley fever virus entry into the United States. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 65, 85–95. [Google Scholar]
  21. Haegeman A, Sohier C, Mostin L, De Leeuw I, Van Campe W, Philips W, De Regge N, De Clercq K. 2023. Evidence of lumpy skin disease virus transmission from subclinically infected cattle by Stomoxys calcitrans. Viruses, 15, 1285. [Google Scholar]
  22. Harzing AW. 2007. Publish or perish. https://harzing.com/resources/publish-or-perish. [Google Scholar]
  23. Hawkins JA, Adams WV, Cook L, Wilson BH, Roth EE. 1973. Role of horse fly (Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine) and stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans L.) in transmission of equine infectious anemia to ponies in Louisiana. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 34, 1583–1586. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Heller LM, Bastos TDSA, Zapa DMB, de Morais IML, Salvador VF, Leal LLLL, Couto LFM, Neves LC, de Freitas Paula WV, Ferreira LL, de Barros ATM, Cançado PHD, Machado RZ, Soares VE, Cadioli FA, da Silva Krawczak F, Zanetti Lopes WD. 2024. Evaluation of mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma vivax by Stomoxys calcitrans in a region without a cyclic vector. Parasitology Research, 123, 96. [Google Scholar]
  25. Hemida MG, Al-Sabi M, Alhammadi M, Almathen F, Alnaeem A. 2022. Analyzing the roles of some species of arthropods in the transmission of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 8, 1305–1310. [Google Scholar]
  26. Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA. 2024. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.5. Updated August 2024. Cochrane. [Google Scholar]
  27. Hoelzle K, Engels M, Kramer MM, Wittenbrink MM, Dieckmann SM, Hoelzle LE. 2010. Occurrence of Mycoplasma suis in wild boars (Sus scrofa L.). Veterinary Microbiology, 143, 405–409. [Google Scholar]
  28. Hornok S, Takács N, Szekeres S, Szoke K, Kontschán J, Horváth G, Sugár L. 2020. DNA of Theileria orientalis, T. equi and T. capreoli in stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans). Parasites & Vectors, 13, 186. [Google Scholar]
  29. Hove P, Khumalo ZT, Chaisi ME, Oosthuizen MC, Brayton KA, Collins NE. 2018. Detection and Characterisation of Anaplasma marginale and A centrale in South Africa. Veterinary Sciences, 5, 26. [Google Scholar]
  30. Issimov A, Kutumbetov L, Orynbayev MB, Khairullin B, Myrzakhmetova B, Sultankulova K, White PJ. 2020. Mechanical transmission of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus by Stomoxys Spp., Stomoxys calcitrans, Stomoxys sitiens, Stomoxys indicus (Diptera: Muscidae). Animals, 10, 477. [Google Scholar]
  31. Johnson G, Panella N, Hale K, Komar N. 2010. Detection of West Nile virus in stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) parasitizing juvenile American white pelicans. Journal of Medical Entomology, 47, 1205–1211. [Google Scholar]
  32. Jori F, Hernandez-Jover M, Magouras I, Dürr S, Brookes VJ. 2021. Wildlife-livestock interactions in animal production systems: What are the biosecurity and health implications? Animal Frontiers, 11, 8–19. [Google Scholar]
  33. Kasozi KI, Zirintunda G, Ssempijja F, Buyinza B, Alzahrani KJ, Matama K, Nakimbugwe HN, Alkazmi L, Onanyang D, Bogere P, Ochieng JJ, Islam S, Matovu W, Nalumenya DP, Batiha GE, Osuwat LO, Abdelhamid M, Shen T, Omadang L, Welburn SC. 2021. Epidemiology of trypanosomiasis in wildlife-implications for humans at the wildlife interface in Africa. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, 621699. [Google Scholar]
  34. Kitching RP, Mellor PS. 1986. Insect transmission of capripoxvirus. Research in Veterinary Science, 40, 255–258. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Kumar S, Gupta S, Mohmad A, Fular A, Parthasarathi BC, Chaubey AK. Molecular tools-advances opportunities and prospects for the control of parasites of veterinary importance. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 41, 33–42. [Google Scholar]
  36. Ledwaba MB, Nozipho K, Tembe D, Onyiche TE, Chaisi ME. 2022. Distribution and prevalence of ticks and tick-borne pathogens of wild animals in South Africa: A systematic review. Current Research in Parasitology Vector-borne Diseases, 2, 100088. [Google Scholar]
  37. Lendzele SS, Abdoulmoumini M, Dickmu S, Renz A, Lydie G, Mavoungou JF, Garabed R. 2019. Risk factors for the contamination of wild Stomoxys niger niger Macquart 1851 (Diptera: Muscidae) with the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus. Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 6, 95–108. [Google Scholar]
  38. Liénard E, Salem A, Jacquiet P, Grisez C, Prévot F, Blanchard B, Bouhsira E, Franc M. 2013. Development of a protocol testing the ability of Stomoxys calcitrans Linnaeus, 1758 (Diptera: Muscidae) to transmit Besnoitia besnoiti (Henry, 1913) (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae). Parasitology Research, 112, 479–486. [Google Scholar]
  39. Linnaeus C. 1758. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordinus genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis. Tomus I Editio decima reformata. Holmiae, Laurentius Salvius. [Google Scholar]
  40. Malatji MP, Tembe D, Mukaratirwa S. 2023. An update on epidemiology and clinical aspects of besnoitiosis in livestock and wildlife in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Parasite Epidemiology and Control, 21, e00284. [Google Scholar]
  41. Makhahlela NB, Liebenberg D, Van Hamburg H, Taioe MO, Onyiche TG, Ramatla T, Thekisoe OMM. 2022. Detection of pathogens of veterinary importance harboured by Stomoxys calcitrans in South African feedlots. Scientific African, 15, e01112. [Google Scholar]
  42. Mellor PS, Kitching RP, Wilkinson PJ. 1987. Mechanical transmission of capripox virus and African swine fever virus by Stomoxys calcitrans. Research in Veterinary Science, 43, 109–112. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Mihok S, Maramba O, Munyoki E, Kagoiya J. 1995. Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma spp. by African Stomoxynae (Diptera: Muscidae). Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 46, 103–105. [Google Scholar]
  44. Minakshi P, Ghosh M, Kumar R, Brar B, Lambe UP, Banerjee S, Ranjan K, Kumar B, Goel P, Malik YS, Prasad G. 2020. An insight into nanomedicinal approaches to combat viral zoonoses. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, 20(11), 915–962. [Google Scholar]
  45. Mohammed A. 2024. A Review on zoonotic and economic importance of anthrax. Open Access Journal of Veterinary Science Research, 9, 10. [Google Scholar]
  46. Mounioko F, Darren Maganga G, Mavoungou JF, Roland C, Koumba Z, Koumba AA, Sevidzem SL, Lebel Tamesse J, Simo G, M’batchi B. 2018. Molecular screening of Trypanosoma spp. in Glossina, Stomoxys and tabanids in the Moukalaba Doudou National Park (South-West Gabon). World Journal of Veterinary Science, 6, 52–61. [Google Scholar]
  47. Nayani S, Meraj S, Renyard A, Gries G. 2024. Blood-feeding stable flies Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae), are attracted to and transmit Staphylococcus aureus (Bacillales: Staphylococcaceae), a causal agent of bovine mastitis: a laboratory pilot study. Journal of Medical Entomology, 61, 1470–1477. [Google Scholar]
  48. Nanyingi MO, Munyua P, Kiama SG, Muchemi GM, Thumbi SM, Bitek AO, Bett B, Muriithi RM, Njenga MK. 2015. A systematic review of Rift Valley Fever epidemiology 1931–2014. Infection, Ecology, Epidemiology, 5, 28024. [Google Scholar]
  49. Ngeranwa JJN, Kilalo DC. 1994. The ability of Stomoxys calcitrans and mechanical means to transmit Trypanosoma brucei evansi from goats to camels in Kenya. Veterinary Research Communications, 18, 307–312. [Google Scholar]
  50. Okello I, Mafie E, Eastwood G, Nzalawahe J, Mboera LE. 2022. African animal trypanosomiasis: A systematic review on prevalence risk factors and drug resistance in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Medical Entomology, 59, 1099–1143. [Google Scholar]
  51. Olesen AS, Lohse L, Hansen MF, Boklund A, Halasa T, Belsham GJ, Rasmussen TB, Bøtner A, Bødker R. 2018. Infection of pigs with African swine fever virus via ingestion of stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans). Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 65, 1152–1157. [Google Scholar]
  52. Olias P, Schade B, Mehlhorn H. 2011. Molecular pathology taxonomy and epidemiology of Besnoitia species (Protozoa: Sarcocystidae). Infection Genetics and Evolution, 11, 1564–1576. [Google Scholar]
  53. Page MJ, Moher D, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, Chou R, Glanville J, Grimshaw JM, Hróbjartsson A, Lalu MM, Li T, Loder EW, Mayo-Wilson E, McDonald S, McGuinness LA, Stewart LA, Thomas J, Tricco AC, Welch VA, Whiting P, McKenzie JE. 2021. PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n160. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Park S, Ronholm J. 2021. Staphylococcus aureus in agriculture: lessons in evolution from a multispecies pathogen. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 34, 10–1128. [Google Scholar]
  55. Phetkarl T, Fungwithaya P, Udompornprasith S, Amendt J, Sontigun N. 2023. Preliminary study on prevalence of hemoprotozoan parasites harbored by Stomoxys (Diptera: Muscidae) and tabanid flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in horse farms in Nakhon Si Thammarat province Southern Thailand. Veterinary World, 16, 2128. [Google Scholar]
  56. Potgieter FT, Sutherland B, Biggs HC. 1981. Attempts to transmit Anaplasma marginale with Hippobosca rufipes and Stomoxys calcitrans. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, 48, 119–122. [Google Scholar]
  57. Prullage JB, Williams RE, Gaafar SM. 1993. On the transmissibility of Erythrozoon suis by Stomoxys calcitrans and Aedes aegypti. Veterinary Parasitology, 50, 125–135. [Google Scholar]
  58. Rodríguez NF, Tejedor-Junco MT, González-Martín M, Gutierrez C. 2014. Stomoxys calcitrans as possible vector of Trypanosoma evansi among camels in an affected area of the Canary Islands Spain. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 47, 510–512. [Google Scholar]
  59. Rochon K, Baker RB, Almond GW, Watson DW. 2011. Assessment of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) as a vector of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Journal of Medical Entomology, 48, 876–883. [Google Scholar]
  60. Rochon K, Hogsette JA, Kaufman PE, Olafson PU, Swiger SL, Taylor DB. 2021. Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) – Biology management and research needs. Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 12, 30. [Google Scholar]
  61. Schofield S, Torr SJ. 2002. A comparison of the feeding behaviour of tsetse and stable flies, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 16(2), 177–185. [Google Scholar]
  62. Scoles GA, Lysyk TJ, Broce AB, Palmer GH. 2005. Relative efficiency of biological transmission of Anaplasma marginale (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) by Dermacentor andersoni (Acari: Ixodidae) compared with mechanical transmission by Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 42, 668–675. [Google Scholar]
  63. S Sharif, Jacquiet P, Prevot F, Grisez C, Bouhsira E, Franc M, Liénard E. 2017. Assessment of persistence of Besnoitia besnoiti (Henry, 1913) bradyzoites in Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae). Revue de Médecine Vétérinaire, 168, 197–203. [Google Scholar]
  64. Sharif S,Jacquiet P, Prevot F,Grisez C, Raymond-Letron I, Semin MO, Geffré A, Trumel C, Franc M, Bouhsira É, Liénard E. 2019. Stomoxys calcitrans mechanical vector of virulent Besnoitia besnoiti from chronically infected cattle to susceptible rabbit. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 33, 247–255. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Showler AT, Osbrink WLA. 2015. Stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans L., dispersal and governing factors. International Journal of Insect Science, 7, IJIS-S21647. [Google Scholar]
  66. Sohier C, Haegeman A, Mostin L, De Leeuw I, Campe WV, De Vleeschauwer A, Tuppurainen ESM, Van Den Berg T, De Regge N, De Clercq K. 2019. Experimental evidence of mechanical lumpy skin disease virus transmission by Stomoxys calcitrans biting flies and Haematopota spp. horseflies. Scientific Reports, 9, 20076. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Sumba AL, Mihok S, Oyieke FA. 1998. Mechanical transmission of Trypanosoma evansi and T. congolense by Stomoxys niger and S. taeniatus in a laboratory mouse model. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 12, 417–422. [Google Scholar]
  68. Taylor DB, Moon RD, Mark DR. 2012. Economic impact of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on dairy and beef cattle production. Journal of Medical Entomology, 49, 198–20912. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Turell MJ, Knudson GB. 1987. Mechanical transmission of Bacillus anthracis by stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans) and mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti and Aedes taeniorhynchus). Infection and Immunity, 55, 1859–1861. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Turell MJ, Dohm DJ, Geden CJ, Hogsette JA, Linthicum KJ. 2010. Potential for stable flies and house flies (Diptera: Muscidae) to transmit Rift Valley Fever Virus1. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 26, 445–448. [Google Scholar]
  71. Váradi L, Luo JL, Hibbs DE, Perry JD, Anderson RJ, Orenga S, Groundwater PW. 2017. Methods for the detection and identification of pathogenic bacteria: past present and future. Chemical Society Reviews, 46, 4818–4832. [Google Scholar]
  72. Vidic J, Manzano M, Chang CM, Jaffrezic-Renault N. 2017. Advanced biosensors for detection of pathogens related to livestock and poultry. Veterinary Research, 48, 1–22. [Google Scholar]
  73. Weber AF, Moon RD, Sorensen DK, Bates DW, Meiske JC, Brown CA, Rohland NL, Hooker EC, Strand WO. 1988. Evaluation of the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) as a vector of enzootic bovine leukosis. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 49, 1543–1549. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Zumpt F. 1973. The Stomoxyine biting flies of the world. Taxonomy biology economic importance and control measures. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. [Google Scholar]

Current usage metrics show cumulative count of Article Views (full-text article views including HTML views, PDF and ePub downloads, according to the available data) and Abstracts Views on Vision4Press platform.

Data correspond to usage on the plateform after 2015. The current usage metrics is available 48-96 hours after online publication and is updated daily on week days.

Initial download of the metrics may take a while.