Open Access
Review
Table 7
Ethnopharmacology.
| Plant | Family | Compounds (major/active) | Leishmania species | Effect | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In vivo mice (BALB/c) | |||||
| Sterculia villosa | Malvaceae | Lupeol | L. donovani | In vitro, activity against promastigote and amastigote forms with an increase of NO. In vivo, 75 mg/kg/day treatment reduced splenic and hepatic burden and up regulated the release of pro inflammatory Th1 cytokines IL-12 and IFN-g, while down regulating release of anti-inflammatory IL-10 and TGF-b. Molecular docking revealed binding to 4 major potential drug targets (PTR1, APRT, biosynthetic LPG, and GP63). | [22] |
| Croton caudatus Geisel. (var. tomentosus Hook) | Euphorbiaceae | Terpenoids/semi-purified hexane extract of C. caudatus leaves (JdHex) | L. donovani | In vitro, alteration of promastigote metabolism (lipids, proteins, carbohydrates) and integrity (DNA condensation, PS externalization, apoptosis). Reduced replication of amastigotes, increased release of NO, pro-inflammatory IL-12 and TNF-alpha, reduction of TGF-beta and IL-10. In vivo, reduction of parasite burden in liver and spleen, induction of Th1 response by IFN-g secretion and abrogation of IL-10 secretion. | [25] |
| Murraya koenigii | Rutaceae | Mahanine | L. donovani | In vitro, apoptosis through phosphatidylserine externalization. Increased ROS and NO generation, suppression of Uncoupling protein 2 and Th1 cytokines through modulation of the STAT pathway. Molecular modeling revealed interaction with parasite antioxidant enzymes like ascorbate peroxidase. In vivo, reduction of parasite burden, upregulation of NO, iNOS, ROS, IL-12, and T cell proliferation | [81] |
| Pentalinon andrieuxii | Apocynaceae | Pentalinonsterol | L. donovani | In vivo, targeted towards infected organs and reduction of parasite load in liver, spleen and bone marrow. Enhanced T cell proliferation. Strong Th1 protective response with enhanced IFN-g production and formation of mature hepatic granulomas. No modulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines. | [39] |
| Bursera aptera | Burseraceae | Podophyllotoxin | L. mexicana | In vitro, promastigote apoptosis and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential. In vivo, reduction in lesion size and parasite burden. Increased Th1 cytokines TNF-α and IFN-g, and decreased Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 in sera of mice. | [69] |
| Intracellular amastigotes | |||||
| Rhynchostylis retusa, Tropidia curculioides, Satyrium nepalense | Orchidaceae | NA | L. donovani | Rhynchostylis retusa root extract was active against intracellular amastigotes with low cytotoxicity. | [11] |
| Physalis angulata | Solanaceae | NA | L. amazonensis | Aqueous extract of P. angulata (AEPa) root increased ROS which induced Leishmania cell death by apoptosis. AEPa increased macrophage activation state and promoted synthesis of superoxide anion (O2−). | [18] |
| Euterpe oleracea “Açai” | Arecaceae | Anthocyanins, phenolic compounds | L. amazonensis/L. infantum | Clarified Açai juice increased ROS levels and externalization of PS marking apoptosis. Reduce amastigote load inside cells for L. amazonensis and L. infantum. Led to strong reduction in IL-17 levels in infected cells. | [19] |
| Tetradenia riparia (Hochstetter) Codd | Lamiaceae | NA | L. amazonensis | Reversion of parasite mediated inhibition of IFN-gamma secretion, blocking of induction of IL-10, IL-4, and IL-5, and inhibition of secretion of IL-1B, IL-17, IL-33, and TNF-α. | [24] |
| Croton cajucara Benth. “sacaca” | Euphorbiaceae | Trans-dehydrocrotonin (DCTN), trans-crotonin (CTN) and acetylaleuritolic acid (AAA) | L. amazonensis | Inhibition of trypanothione reductase enzyme. | [51] |
| Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl. | Verbenaceae | Verbascoside, isoverbascoside (ratio 7:3) | L .amazonensis | Selective inhibition of parasite arginase. | [55] |
| Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith (Shampoo ginger) | Zingiberaceae | Zerumbone | L. donovani | Increased ROS, led to DNA condensation and phosphatidylserine externalization followed by apoptosis. | [62] |
| Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels “jambolão” | Myrtaceae | α-pinene | L. amazonensis | Immunomodulatory activity by increase of NO secretion and phagocytic and lysosomal activity. | [79] |
| Platonia insignis Mart. “bacurizeiro” | Clusiaceae | Lupeol | L. amazonensis | Led to increased lysosomal volume and phagocytic capacity of macrophages. | [95] |
| 46 plants | Varying | NA | L. donovani | Of the 46 plants, 15 extracts showed activity against Leishmania parasites. | [104] |
| Stachytarpheta cayennensis | Verbenaceae | Verbascoside | L. amazonensis | Inhibition of parasite arginase, leading to reduced protective oxidative mechanisms with impaired trypanothione synthesis. | [56] |
| Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze, Eugenia uniflora L., Jatropha gossypiifolia, Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi | Amaranthaceae, Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Anacardiaceae | Tirucallane type triterpenoids schinol and masticadienoic acid (S. terebinthifolia), sesquiterpene atractylon, glucosylated flavonoids including quercitrin (E. uniflora) | L. amazonensis | E. uniflora extracts contained quercitrin already reported as an arginase inhibitor. | [83] |
| Axenic amastigotes | |||||
| Ajuga laxmannii | Lamiaceae | Harpagide, 8-O-acetylharpagide, cis-melilotoside, trans-melilotoside, dihydromelilotoside, verbascoside, galactosylmartynoside, isoorientin. | L. donovani | The iridoid glucoside 8-O-acetylharpagide, 8-O-acetylharpagide, and verbascoside were the most active against L. donovani. | [7] |
| 45 plants | Varying | NA | L. donovani | Study revealed over 80% of extracts with some anti-leishmanial activity. | [97] |
PTR1: Pteridine reductase 1; APRT: adenine phosphoribosyltransferase; LPG: lipophosphoglycan; GP63: Glycoprotein 63; NA: Not Assessed.
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