Open Access
Review

Table 1.

Disease agents associated with Stomoxys spp.

Disease agent Geographic occurrence Transmission Association* References
Viruses
   Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) Worldwide Mechanical Experimental and natural transmission, isolation [44, 56, 110]
   African swine fever virus (ASFV) Africa, Sardinia (Italy) Mechanical Experimental transmission [80]
   West Nile Fever virus (WNFV) Worldwide Mechanical Experimental transmission, isolation [36, 66]
   Rift Valley Fever virus (RVFV) Africa, Middle East Mechanical Experimental transmission [59]
   Lumpy Skin Disease virus (LSDV) Africa, Middle East Mechanical Experimental transmission, isolation [22, 68, 80]
   Bovine Herpes Virus (BHV) Worldwide Mechanical Experimental transmission [49]
   Bovine Leukosis Virus (BLV) Worldwide Mechanical Experimental transmission [14, 46, 126]
   Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) America Mechanical Experimental transmission [39]
Bacteria
   Bacillus anthracis Worldwide Mechanical Experimental and natural transmission [107, 108]
   Pasteurella multocida Worldwide Mechanical Experimental transmission [92]
   Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Worldwide Mechanical Experimental transmission [127]
   Francisella tularensis North America, Europe, northern Africa, Middle East, Asia Mechanical Experimental transmission [95, 125]
   Enterobacter sakazakii Worldwide Biological and mechanical Natural transmission, isolation, and development. [87]
   Dermatophilus congolensis Worldwide Mechanical Experimental and natural transmission [100]
Rickettsia
   Anaplasma marginale Worldwide (Tropics and subtropics) Mechanical Experimental and natural transmission, isolation [94, 109]
Protozoa
   Trypanosoma evansi South America, North Africa, Asia, Europe Mechanical Experimental transmission [10, 83, 114]
   Trypanosoma vivax South America, Africa Mechanical Experimental transmission [83]
   Trypanosoma brucei Africa Mechanical Experimental transmission, isolation [83, 85]
   Trypanosoma congolense Africa Mechanical [114]
   Besnoitia besnoiti South America, Europe, Africa, Middle East, Asia Mechanical Experimental and natural transmission [8, 77, 78]
   Leishmania tropica North Africa, Middle East, Asia Mechanical Experimental transmission [6]
Helminths
   Habronema microstoma Worldwide Biological Experimental transmission, isolation, and development [119, 130]
*

Association between disease agents and stomoxes is described as follows: isolation (agent isolated from stomoxes), development (as if stomoxes were natural intermediate host), experimental transmission (transmission of agent by unnatural mode of infection or to unnatural host), and natural transmission (transmission of agent from one natural host to another by exposure to stomoxes) according to Krinsky (1976) [73].

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