Haplotype network and population structure of DBLMSP1-1 across P. falciparum populations. (A) Median-joining haplotype network constructed from DBLMSP1-1 sequences. Each node represents a unique haplotype, with node size proportional to sample count and pie chart colors indicating country of origin. Two major clusters are observed, with no strong geographic partitioning. (B) STRUCTURE analysis (K = 6) reveals admixture among populations, with all regions showing combinations of multiple inferred clusters. Asian populations are consistently associated with cluster K3, while other clusters are broadly shared across African regions.