Schistosoma antigens: A future clinical magic bullet for autoimmune diseases?

Open Access

Review

Table 1

A summary of schistosome products with immunomodulatory effect against autoimmune diseases.

Schistosome product		Diseases	Immunomodulatory effect	References
Egg	Soluble egg antigen (SEA)	Graves hyperthyroidism	Suppresses Th1-type anti-TSHR IgG2a autoantibodies and IFN-γ secretion	[88]
		Asthma	Downregulates Th2 response and upregulates Th1 response, increases IFN-γ production	[97]
		Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes	Induces Th2 response	[115]
		Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes	Stimulates IL-33 secretion and increases Tregs	[48]
		Inflammatory bowel diseases	Increases FoxP3⁺ Treg cells and secrets Th2 cytokines	[49]
		Skin transplantation	Increases CD4⁺IL-4⁺ T cells and CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ T cells but decreases CD4⁺IFN-γ⁺ T cells in the skin transplant	[59]
		Autoimmune encephalomyelitis	Induces Th2-dominant response and reduces leukocyte infiltration in the CNS	[20]
	Interleukin-4 inducing principle from Schistosoma mansoni eggs (IPSE/alpha-1)	Allergic airway inflammation	Induces Bregs which activates Tregs	[65]
	28-kilodalton glutathione S-transferases (28GST)	Schistosomiasis	Induces Th1 response	[67]
	28-kilodalton glutathione S-transferases (28GST)	Colitis	Downregulates Th1 and Th17 and activates M2 macrophages and Th2 responses	[106]
	Schistosoma japonicum HSP60-derived peptide (SJMHE)	Delayed-type hypersensitivity	Induces CD4⁺CD25⁺ Tregs with overexpression of CTLA-4, IL-10, and TGF-β1	[121]
		Inflammatory bowel diseases	Increases Th2 and Treg cells, upregulates IL-10 and reduces Th17 and IL-17	[108]
		Allergic rhinitis	Upregulates Bregs with IL-10 production	[42]
	Schistosoma mansoni 14-kDa fatty acid-binding protein (Sm14)	Schistosomiasis	Activates CD4⁺ T lymphocytes and produces higher IFN-γ and TNF-α	[8]
		Schistosomiasis	Increases production of IgG specific antibodies, IL-2, TNF-α, and IFN-γ	[104]
	Omega-1 (ω1)	Diabetes	Regulates an inflammasome-dependent IL-1β and triggers Tregs production	[55]
	Omega-1 (ω1)	Human immunodeficiency virus infection	Induces CD4⁺ T cells and stimulates Th2 responses	[86]
	Schistosoma mansoni major egg antigen (Sm-p40)	Hypertension	Reduces Caveolin-1 expression by stimulating TLR-4/CD14-mediated phosphorylation	[75]
Cercariae	Cercarial antigen	Arthritis	Increases serum levels of IL-10 and IFN-γ; increases Tregs and reduces IL-17	[35]
	Cercarial antigen	Colitis	Induces macrophage-dependent response	[112]
	KS-84 (a synthetic peptide of Sm16)	Liver fibrosis	Downregulates TGF-β expression	[16]
	Schistosoma mansoni Cathepsin B 1 (SmCB1)	Schistosomiasis	Increases production of IL-5 and IL-13 and decreases IFN-γ secretion	[114]
Adult worm	Schistosoma mansoni Kunitz type serine protease inhibitor (SmKI-1)	Acetaminophen-induced liver injury	Reduces neutrophil recruitment and elastase activity	[83]
		Pleural cavity inflammation	Lowers leukocyte infiltration	[83]
	Schistosoma mansoni protein 29 (Sm29)	Leishmaniasis	Increases CD4⁺CD25 and CD4⁺CTLA-4⁺ T cells and increases IL-10	[71]
		Allergic airway inflammation	Decreases IgE levels and increases the numbers of CD4⁺FoxP3⁺ T cells	[15]
		Human T cell lymphocytic virus type 1	Induces IL-10 and reduces IFN-γ	[69]
	Schistosoma japonicum tetraspanin orphan receptor (SjTOR)	Schistosomiasis	Modulates complement pathway; induces IgG1 and IgG2a antibodies	[73]

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